Management of organization
Management of organization
Одеський
національний політехнічний університет
Менеджмент
Методичні
вказівки до практичних занять з англійської мови за спеціальністю «Менеджмент» для студентів
ІІ курсу
Передмова
Метою “Методичних вказiвок” є формування впродовж 72 годин аудиторних
занять у студентів (вхідний рівень володіння мовою – В1) вмiнь та навичок читання,
письма та говоріння за тематикою спеціальності «Менеджмент організацій» на ІІ курсі
навчання Інституту бізнесу, економіки та інформаційних технологій (вихідний рівень
володіння мовою – В2). За рахунок тренування і виконання читання текстів і комунікативних
завдань студенти зможуть досягти практичного володіння англійською мовою за фахом.
Практичне володіння іноземною мовою в рамках даного курсу припускає
наявність таких умінь в різних видах мовної комунікації, які дають можливість:
·
вільно читати
оригінальну літературу іноземною мовою у відповідній галузі знань;
·
оформляти
витягнуту з іноземних джерел інформацію у вигляді перекладу або резюме;
·
робити повідомлення
і доповіді іноземною мовою на теми, пов'язані з науковою роботою майбутнього фахівця;
·
вести бесіду
за фахом.
Кожний урок складається з тексту й комплекса мовних вправ, які
розраховані на удосконалення навичок активізації словарного і граматичного мінімуму
професійного спрямування. “Методичні вказiвки” забезпечують підготовку до міжнародного
усного і письмового спілкування англійською мовою для спеціальних цілей, а саме
- оволодіння лексичними, граматичними і стилістичними навичками, а також умінням
розмовляти, читати, переписуватися, перекладати, конспектувати, згортати і розгортати
усну і письмову англомовну інформацію наукового функціонального стилю, що передбачено
вимогами Програми вивчення мов у нефілологічному ВУЗі.
Lesson 1 THE READING MODULE
Read the text: The Nature of Management
Management is an important area of study
from both the personal and the global perspective. Formally defined, management
is the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives
in a changing environment. Central to this process is the effective and efficient
use of limited resources. Managerial ability is the demonstrated capacity to achieve
organizational objectives both effectively and efficiently.
The basic formula for managerial success
is S=A x M x O (managerial success = ability x motivation to manage x opportunity).
Managerial ability results when theory and practice are systematically integrated.
A small business is defined as an independently
owned and managed profit-seeking enterprise employing fewer than 100 persons. Small
business and public sector organizations afford managers some unique opportunities
and challenges. Research indicates that small busi ness managers have a different
managerial role profile than do managers in larger businesses. The axiom of the
small business generalist and the large business specialist appears to be valid.
"Lack of management expertise" was found by researchers to be the primary
cause of the high failure rate in small businesses. In spite of a good deal of evidence
to the contrary, public sector managers must cope with a negative image. Many people
assume that bureaucrats are incompetent and wasteful. Four major constraints public
sector managers must deal with are: legislated purposes (government agencies are told what to do
by law-making bodies), no compe tition, weak incentives, and organizational inflexibility
(large governmental bureaucracies have to be highly structured to provide standard
services to millions of clients nationwide, reams of procedures and regulations
can stifle innovation).
Slumping productivity growth in the United States took an upward
swing in 1983-84 largely due to a maturing work force, lower inflation and cheaper
energy, technological advancement, and increased labor-manage ment cooperation.
Still, there is much room for improvement if the United States is to match Japan's
record of productivity growth. It is important for managers to translate the productivity
problem into organizational terms. Organizational productivity is the ratio of total
input to total output, adjusted for inflation, for a specific period of time. Japan,
with the world's highest rate of productivity growth, is an inspiring example of
how to do more with less.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
objective, opportunity, challenge, valid, rate, productivity
growth, labor, input, output, incentive, purpose, ratio, competition, room, improvement,
advancement, inflexibility, evidence, failure
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1) What does management study?
2) What is the primary cause of the high failure
rate in small businesses?
3) What are four major constraints public sector managers
must deal with?
4) What is organizational productivity?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1. Small business and public sector organizations
|
a) afford managers some unique opportunities and challenges.
|
2. Management is the process of working with and through others
|
b) are incompetent and wasteful.
|
3. There is much room for improvement if the United States is
|
c) to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment.
|
4. Many people assume that bureaucrats
|
d) to match Japan's record of productivity growth.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
(Rising/slumping) productivity growth in the United States took
an upward swing in 1983-84 largely due to a maturing work force, lower inflation
and (cheaper/more expensive) energy, technological advancement, and increased labor-manage
ment cooperation.
THE SPEAKING MODULE
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe management,
organizational productivity, managerial ability, small business using the suggested words and
expressions as in example:
management
to
achieve, objectives, process, with and through, environment, changing
example:
Management is the process of working with
and through others to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment.
Central to this process is the effective and efficient use of limited resources.
|
organizational
productivity
ratio,
output, inflation, period of time, total, input
|
managerial
ability
capacity,
objectives, efficiently, to achieve, demonstrated
|
small
business
enterprise,
owned, profit-seeking, managed, employing, fewer, independently
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Research indicates that small busi ness
managers have a different managerial role profile than do managers in larger businesses.
2) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: It is important for managers to translate
the productivity problem into organizational terms.
3) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Small business and public sector organizations
afford managers some unique opportunities and challenges.
THE WRITING MODULE
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested
words:
adjusted, inspiring, of, rate, for, into
It is important _____ managers to translate the productivity problem____
organizational terms. Organizational productivity is the ratio ___ total input to
total output,______ for inflation, for a specific period of time. Japan, with the
world's highest ____ of productivity growth, is an ______example of how to do more
with less.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of
the topics (up to 100 words):
“Management is an important area of study”
“Small business management”
“Public sector management”
Lesson 2. THE READING MODULE
Read the text: The evolution of management thought
Management thought has evolved in bits and pieces over the years.
Although the practice of management dates back to the earliest recorded history,
the systematic study of management is largely a product of the twentieth century.
An information explosion in management theory has created a management theory jungle.
Five conventional approaches to management are: (1) the universal process approach,
(2) the operational approach, (3) the behavioral approach, (4) the systems approach,
and (5) the contingency approach. A modern unconventional approach centers on Peters’
and Waterman's attributes of corporate excellence.
Henri Fayol's universal process approach
assumes that all organiza tions, regardless of purpose or size, require the same
management process. Furthermore, it assumes that this rational process can be reduced
to separate functions and principles of management. The universal process approach,
the oldest of the various approaches, is still popular today.
Dedicated to promoting production efficiency
and reducing waste, the operational approach has evolved from scientific management
to opera tions management. Frederick W. Taylor, the father of scientific manage
ment, and his followers revolutionized industrial management through the use of
standardization, time and motion study, selection and training, and pay incentives.
Largely a product of the post-World War II era, operations management has broadened
the scientific pursuit of efficiency to include all productive organizations. Operations
management specialists often rely on sophisticated models and quantitative techniques.
Management has turned to the human factor
in the human relations movement and organizational behavior. Emerging from such
factors as unionization, the Hawthorne studies, and the philosophy of industrial
humanism, the human relations movement began as a concerted effort to make employees'
needs a high management priority. Today, organizational behavior tries to identify
the multiple determinants of job performance.
Advocates of the systems approach recommend
that modern organiza tion, he viewed as open systems. Open systems depend on the
outside environment for survival, whereas closed systems do not. General systems
theory, an interdisciplinary field based on the assumption that everything is systematically
related, has identified a hierarchy of systems and has differentiated closed and
open system.
The contingency approach is an effort
to determine through research which managerial practices and techniques are appropriate
in specific situations. It is characterized by an open-system perspective, a practical
research orientation, and a multivariate approach to research.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
approach, survival, behavior, pursuit, determinant, priority,
quantitative techniques, waste, job performance, contingency, effort, environment
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1) What are conventional approaches to
management?
2) What does the universal process approach
assume?
3) What has the operational approach evolved
from?
4) What do operations management specialists
often rely on?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1.
Today, organizational
behavior tries
|
a) the oldest of the various approaches, is still popular today.
|
2.
Henri Fayol's universal
process approach assumes
|
b) the scientific pursuit of efficiency
to include all productive organizations.
|
3. The universal process approach,
|
c) to identify the multiple determinants
of job performance.
|
4. Operations management has broadened
|
d) that this rational process can be reduced
to separate functions and principles of management.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
Dedicated to promoting production efficiency and (increasing/reducing)
waste, the operational approach has (evolved/resumed) from scientific management
to opera tions management.
THE SPEAKING MODULE
II.
Speaking Exercises:
Exercise
1. Describe universal process approach,
operational approach, behavioral approach, systems approach, contingency approach using the suggested words and
expressions as in example:
|
universal process approach
the same, rational, assumes, regardless, size, require
example:
Henri
Fayol's universal process approach assumes that all organiza tions, regardless
of purpose or size, require the same management process. Furthermore, it assumes
that this rational process can be reduced to separate functions and principles
of management.
|
|
operational
approach
waste,
standardization, promoting, motion study, incentives, training
|
|
|
behavioral
approach
unionization,
human relations, priority, industrial humanism, employees' needs
|
systems
approach
open
systems, survival, related, closed system, environment, outside
|
|
contingency
approach
perspective,
orientation, research, open-system, multivariate, specific situations, managerial
|
|
|
|
|
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Although the practice of management
dates back to the earliest recorded history, the systematic study of management
is largely a product of the twentieth century.
2) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Management has turned to the
human factor in the human relations movement and organizational behavior.
3) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: The contingency approach is an effort
to determine through research which managerial practices and techniques are appropriate
in specific situations.
THE WRITING MODULE
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise
1. Complete the sentences with the
suggested words:
assumption; differentiated; outside; systems; is.
Open systems depend on the ______ environment for survival, whereas
closed systems do not. General systems theory, an interdisciplinary field based
on the _______ that everything ____ systematically related, has identified a hierarchy
of _____ and has ______ closed and open system.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics
(up to 100 words):
“Five conventional approaches to management”
“ The evolution of management
thought”
Lesson 3 THE READING MODULE
Read the text: Planning and decision making
Planning has been labeled the
primary management function because it sets the stage for all other aspects of management.
Recent research has uncovered the following trends in corporate planning: more planners
with actual management experience; greater teamwork, customizing, and flexibility;
and more translation of broad strategies into how-to-do-it plans. Along with many
other practical reasons for planning, two conceptual reasons for planning are limited
resources and an uncertain environment. To cope with environmental uncertainty,
organizations can respond as defenders, prospectors, analyzers, or reactors.
A properly written plan tells
what, when, and how something is to be accomplished. Clearly written organizational
mission statements tend to serve as a useful focal point for the planning process.
Strategic, intermediate, and operational plans are formulated by top, middle, and
lower-level management, respectively. Objectives have been called the single most important feature of the planning
process. Well-written objectives spell out in measurable terms what should be accomplished
and when it is to be accomplished. Good objectives help managers by serving as targets,
act ing as measuring sticks, encouraging commitment, and strengthening motivation.
Objective setting begins at the top of the organization and filters down, thus forming
a means-ends chain. Priorities affect resource allocation by assigning relative
importance to objectives. Plans are formu lated and executed as part of a
more encompassing planning/control cycle.
Management by objectives (MBO)
is an approach to planning and controlling that is based on measurable and participatively
set objectives. MBO basically consists of four steps: (1) set objectives participatively,
(2) develop action plans, (3) periodically reevaluate objectives and plans and monitor
performance, and (4) conduct annual performance appraisals. Objective setting
in MBO flows from top to bottom. MBO has both strengths and limitations and requires
a supportive climate favorable to change, participation, and the sharing of authority.
Break-even analysis, or cost-volume-profit
analysis, can be carried out algebraically or graphically. Either way, it helps
planners gauge the potential impact of price changes and profit objectives on sales
volume. A major limitation of break-even analysis is that specialized accounting
knowledge is required to identify relevant fixed and variable costs.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
objective, target, measuring sticks, resource allocation, trend,
teamwork, conceptual reasons, environmental, defender, respectively, priority,
appraisal, gauge, profit
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1) Why has planning been labeled the primary management
function?
2) What are two conceptual reasons for planning?
3) Who formulates intermediate plans?
4) What is management by objectives based
on?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1.
A properly written plan tells what, when, and how
|
a)
flows from top to bottom.
|
2.
Objective setting in MBO
|
b) organizations can respond as defenders.
|
3.
Objectives have been called
|
c)
something is to be accomplished.
|
4.
To cope with environmental uncertainty,
|
d)
the single most important feature of the planning process.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
Good objectives (hamper/help) managers by serving as targets,
act ing as measuring sticks, (encouraging/discouraging) commitment, and strengthening
motivation.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe planning, objectives, MBO, cost-volume-profit analysis using the suggested words and
expressions as in example:
planning
experience, recent, teamwork, how-to-do-it plans, stage,
flexibility, corporate
example:
Planning has been labeled the primary management function because
it sets the stage for all other aspects of management. Recent researches has uncovered
the following trends in corporate planning: more planners with actual management
experience; greater teamwork, customizing, and flexibility; and more translation
of broad strategies into how-to-do-it plans
|
objectives
measurable, accomplish, when, terms, targets, commitment, spell
out, motivation
|
MBO
objective, set, measurable, approach, controlling, planning,
based
|
cost-volume-profit analysis
gauge, sales, carried out, planners, impact, volume, price,
objectives
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Two conceptual reasons for planning are
limited resources and an uncertain environment.
2) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Priorities affect resource allocation
by assigning relative importance to objectives.
3) Question: ___________________________________________
?
Answer: Good objectives help managers by serving
as targets, act ing as measuring sticks, encouraging commitment, and strengthening
motivation.
THE WRITING MODULE
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested
words:
assigning, executed, top, to, more.
Objective setting begins at
the _____of the organization and filters down, thus forming a means-ends chain.
Priorities affect resource allocation by ______relative importance _____ objectives.
Plans are formu lated and ______as part of a ______encompassing planning/control
cycle.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of
the topics (up to 100 words):
“Management by objectives”
“Trends in corporate planning”
“Objectives and the planning process”
Lesson 4. THE READING MODULE
Read the text: Organizing
Organizing is an important managerial function that translates strategy into a systematic
structure of authority
relationships and task responsibilities. Contingency organization design has grown
in popularity as environmental complexity has increased. Organization charts are
helpful visual aids for organizers. Representing the organization’s structural skeleton,
organization charts delineate vertical hierarchy and horizontal specialization.
The idea behind contingency
design is to structure the organization to fit situational demands. Consequently,
contingency advocates contend that there is no one best organizational setup for
all situations. Diagnosing the degree of environmental uncertainty is an important
first step in contingency design. Field studies have validated the assumption that
organiza tion structure should vary according to the situation. Burns and Stalker
discovered that mechanistic (rigid) organizations are effective when the environment
is relatively stable and that organic (flexible) organizations are best when unstable
conditions prevail. Lawrence and Lorsch found that differentiation (division of
labor) and integration (cooperation among specialists) increased in successful organizations
as environmental complexity increased.
There are four basic departmentalization
formats, each with its own combination of advantages and disadvantages. Functional
departmentalization is the most common approach. The others are product-service,
geographic location, and customer departmentalization. In actual practice, these
pure types of departmentalization usually are combined.
Design variables available
to organizers are span of control (the number of people who report directly to a
manager), decentralization, line and staff, and matrix. As organizers have come
to realize that situational factors dictate how many people a manager can directly
supervise, the notion of ideal span of control has become obsolete. Decentralization,
the delegation of decision authority to lower-level managers, has been praised as
being democratic and criticized for reducing top management’s control. Strategic
business foster a high degree of decentralization. Line and staff organization helps
balance specialization and unity of command. Functional authority serves to make
staff organization more organic by giving staff specialists temporary and limited
line authority. Matrix organizations are highly organic because they combine vertical
and horizontal lines of authority to achieve coordinated control over complex projects.
Delegation of authority, although
generally resisted for a variety of reasons, is crucial to decentralization. Effective
delegation permit managers to tackle higher-priority duties while helping train
and develop lower-level managers. Although delegation varies in degree, it never
means abdicating primary responsibility.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise
1. Read
and memorize using a dictionary:
environmental complexity, contingency, relationships, responsibilities,
advantage, differentiation, temporary, staff, rigid, flexible, authority, stable
|
Exercise
2. Answer the questions:
1) Why is organizing an important managerial function?
2) What is the idea behind contingency design?
3) What did Burns and Stalker discover?
4) What are design variables available to
organizers?
Exercise
3. Match
the left part with the right:
1.
Decentralization, the delegation of decision authority to lower-level managers,
has been praised
|
a)
as environmental complexity has increased.
|
2.
Contingency organization design has grown in popularity
|
b)
by giving staff specialists temporary and limited line authority
|
3.
Functional authority serves to make staff organization more organic
|
c)
each with its own combination of advantages and disadvantages.
|
4.
There are four basic departmentalization formats,
|
d)
as being democratic and criticized for reducing top management’s control.
|
Exercise
4. Open brackets choosing
the right words:
As organizers have come to (deny/realize) that situational factors
dictate how many people a manager can directly supervise, the notion of ideal span
of control has (become/combined) obsolete.
The speaking module
II.
Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe organization
charts; contingency
design, decentralization, matrix organization, line and staff organization
using the suggested words as in example:
organization charts
helpful,
structural, horizontal, hierarchy, visual, skeleton, structural, delineate
example:
Organization
charts are helpful visual aids for organizers. Representing the organization’s
structural skeleton, organization charts delineate vertical hierarchy and horizontal
specialization.
|
contingency design
demands,
situations, uncertainty, to fit, setup, situational, all, environmental
|
decentralization
democratic,
reducing, authority, delegation, praised, lower-level managers, control
|
matrix organization
organic, achieve, authority, horizontal,
coordinated, combine, vertical, projects, because
|
line and staff organization
balance, command, functional,
temporary, line, by giving, unity, staff, serves
|
Exercise
2. Ask questions to
the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: There are four basic departmentalization
formats, each with its own combination of advantages and disadvantages.
2) Question:
Answer: Strategic business foster a high degree
of decentralization.
3) Question:
Answer: Diagnosing the degree of environmental
uncertainty is an important first step in contingency design.
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: step,
advocates, uncertainty,
fit, should
The idea behind contingency design is to structure the organization
to _____ situational demands. Consequently, contingency ______ contend that there
is no one best organizational setup for all situations. Diagnosing the degree of
environmental ______ is an important first _____ in contingency design. Field studies
have validated the assumption that organiza tion structure _______ vary according
to the situation.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics
(up to 100 words):
“ Organizing is an
important managerial function”
“Basic departmentalization formats”
“ Design variables available to organizers”
Lesson 5 The reading module
Read the text: Strategic management
Strategic management sets the stage for
virtually all managerial activity. Managers at all levels need to think strategically
and be familiar with the strategic management process for three reasons: farsightedness
is encour aged, the rationale behind top-level decisions becomes more apparent,
and strategy formulation and implementation are more decentralized today. Strategic
management is defined as the ongoing process of ensuring a competitively superior
fit between the organization and its ever-changing environment. Strategic management
effectively merges strategic planning, implementation, and control.
Strategic thinking, the ability to look
ahead and spot key organization/ environment interdependencies, is necessary for
successful strategic man agreement and planning. Three tools that can help managers
think strate gically are synergy (the 2 +2 =5 effect), product life cycles that
trace the life of a product through its introduction, growth, maturity, and decline
stages and Porter's three generic strategies. Porter's three strategies are overall
cost leadership, differentiation, and focus.
The strategic management process consists
of four major steps: (1) formulation of grand strategy, (2) formulation of strategic
plans, (3) implementation of strategic plans, and (4) strategic control. Ongoing
evaluation after each of these steps and corrective action based on feedback help keep the strategic management
process on track. Strategists formulate the organization’s grand strategy by conducting
a situational analysis and identifying the driving forces. Results-oriented strategic
plans that specify what, when, and how are then formulated and translated downward
into more specific and shorter-term intermediate and operational plans. Problems
encountered along the way should be detected by the strategic control or by ongoing
evaluation and subjected to corrective action.
Event outcome, event timing, and time
series forecasts help strategic planners anticipate and prepare for future environmental
circumstances. Event outcome forecasts are used when strategists want to predict
the outcome of a highly probable future event. Event timing forecasts predict when,
if ever, a given event will occur. Time series forecasts seek to determine future
values in a sequence of values recorded at fixed intervals. Popular forecasting
techniques among today’s managers are informed judgment, surveys, and trend analysis.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
farsightedness,
rationale, implementation, synergy, growth, maturity, decline stages, leadership,
feedback, forecasting, merge, ongoing process, differentiation
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1)
Why should managers at all levels need to think strategically and
be familiar with the strategic management process?
2) What is strategic thinking?
3) What tools can help managers?
4)
What is
ongoing evaluation based on?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1. Strategic thinking
|
a) are translated downward into more specific operational plans
|
2. Results-oriented strategic plans
|
b) is necessary for successful strategic man agement and planning.
|
3. Strategic management effectively
|
c) are more decentralized today.
|
4. Strategy formulation and implementation
|
d) merges strategic planning, implementation, and control.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
Problems (predicted/encountered) along the way should be detected
by the strategic control or by ongoing evaluation and (subjected/implemented) to
corrective action.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe strategic management, strategic thinking, result-oriented
strategic plans, time series forecasts, event timing forecasts
using the suggested words and expressions as in
example:
strategic
management
ensuring,
ongoing, environment, competitively, fit, ever-changing, implementation
example:
Strategic
management is defined as the ongoing process of ensuring a competitively superior
fit between the organization and its ever-changing environment. Strategic management
effectively merges strategic planning, implementation, and control.
|
strategic
thinking
interdependencies,
planning, ability, synergy, cycles, tools, environment, look ahead
|
result-oriented
strategic plans
downward,
when, operational, translated, what, shorter-terms, how, intermediate
|
time
series forecasts
values,
intervals, determine, sequence, fixed, seek, future, at
|
event timing forecasts
occur, event, given, predict, if ever, will
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: Strategic management effectively
merges strategic planning, implementation, and control.
2) Question:
Answer: Popular forecasting techniques among today’s
managers are informed judgment, surveys, and trend analysis.
3) Question:
Answer: Event outcome, event timing, and time
series forecasts help strategic planners anticipate and prepare for future environmental
circumstances.
The writig module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentence with the suggested words:
trace, that, through, decline, strate gically
Three tools ____ can help managers think ______ are synergy, product
life cycles that _____ the life of a product _____ its introduction, growth, maturity,
and ______ stages and Porter's three generic strategies.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics
(up to 100 words):
“ Strategic thinking”
“Major
steps of strategic management”
“Forecasts
in management”
Lesson 6
The reading module
Read the text: Organizations
Organizations need to be understood and intelligently managed
because they are an ever-present feature of modern life. When people gather together
and formally agree to combine their efforts for a common purpose, an organization
is the result. All organizations, whatever their purpose, have four characteristics:
(1) coordination of effort, (2) common goal or purpose, (3) division of labor, and
(4) hierarchy of authority. If one of these characteristics is absent, an organization
does not exist. Coordination of efforts multiplies individual contributions. A common
goal or purpose gives organization members a rallying point. By systematically dividing
complex tasks into specialized jobs, an organization can efficiently use its human
resources. Division of labor permits organization member to become more proficient
by repeatedly doing the same specialized task. Organization theorists have defined
authority as the right to direct the action of others. Without a recognized hierarchy
of authority, coordination of effort is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve.
Organizational classifications aid systematic
analysis and study of organizations. There is no universally accepted classification
scheme among organization theorists. Two useful ways of classifying organizations
are by purpose and technology. In regard to purpose, organizations can be classified
as business, not-for-profit service, mutual benefit, or common weal. In regard to
technology, there are long-linked, mediating, and inten sive technologies. Each
of these technologies has characteristic strengths and weaknesses.
Modern organization theorists tend to
prefer open-system thinking because it realistically incorporates organizations'
environmental dependency. Early manage ment writers proposed tightly controlled
authoritarian organizations. Max Weber, a German sociologist, applied the label
bureaucracy to his formula for the most rationally efficient type of organization.
Bureaucracies are characterized by their division of labor, hierarchy of authority,
framework of rules, and impersonality. Unfortunately, in actual practice, bureaucracy
has become a synonym for a red tape and inefficiency. The answer to this bureaucratic
paradox is to understand that bureaucracy is a matter of degree. When bureaucratic
characteristics, which are present in all organizations, are carried to an extreme,
efficiency gives way to inefficiency.
Barnard’s acceptance theory of authority
and growing environmental complexity and uncertainty questioned traditional organization
theory. Open-system thinking became a promising alternative because it was useful
in explaining the necessity of creating flexible and adaptable rather than rigid
organizations.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
impact,
purpose, goal, not-for-profit service, mutual benefit, common weal, division of labor, hierarchy
of authority, framework of rules, impersonality, bureaucracy, red tape, inefficiency
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1)
Why do
organizations
need to be understood and intelligently managed?
2)
What systems
do modern organization theorists tend to prefer?
3)
What are
bureaucracies characterized by?
4)
When does
efficiency give way to inefficiency?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1. By systematically dividing complex tasks into specialized jobs,
|
a) are by purpose and technology
|
2. Bureaucracies are characterized
|
b) an organization can efficiently use its human resources.
|
3. Modern organiza tion theorists tend to prefer open-system thinking
|
c) by their division of labor, hierarchy of authority, framework
of rules, and impersonality.
|
4. Two useful ways of classifying organizations
|
d) because it realistically incorporates organizations' environmental
dependency.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
When bureaucratic characteristics, which are present in all organizations,
are (carried/divided) to an extreme, efficiency (grows/gives) way to inefficiency.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises
Exercise 1. Describe : organizations, division
of labor, authority, organization by purpose, organization by technology
using the suggested words and expressions as in example:
organizations
purpose,
effort, characteristics, together, common, hierarchy, authority, coordination
example:
When
people gather together and formally agree to combine their efforts for a common
purpose, an organization is the result. All organizations, whatever their purpose,
have four characteristics: (1) coordination of effort, (2) common goal or purpose,
(3) division of labor, and (4) hierarchy of authority.
|
division
of labor
proficient,
the same, permits, member, repeatedly, task, specialized
|
authority
coordination,
hierarchy, effort, direct, achieve, recognized, action, others
|
organization
by purpose
benefit,
not-for-profit, commonweal, business, mutual, can be
|
organization
by technology
intensive,
long-linked, technologies, mediating
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: Max Weber, a German sociologist, applied
the label bureaucracy to his formula for the most rationally efficient type of organization .
2) Question:
Answer: Organizational classifications aid systematic
analysis and study of organizations.
3) Question:
Answer: Coordination of efforts multiplies individual
contributions .
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested
words:
flexible, thinking, because, complexity,
acceptance
Barnard’s _____ theory of authority and growing environmental
______ and uncertainty questioned traditional organization theory. Open-system _____
became a promising alternative _____ it was useful in explaining the necessity of
creating _____ and adaptable rather than rigid organizations.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to
100 words):
“Major characteristics of organizations”
“Traditional and
modern views of organizations”
“Bureaucracy”
Lesson 7 The reading module
Read the text: Staffing and Human Resource Management
A synergistic relationship exists between
individuals and their employing organizations. But students have strong concerns
about their future organ izational life, especially about the quality of supervision
they will experi ence. Apart from the formal employment contract, an informal and
often unspoken psychological contract exists between employee and employer. Serious
dissatisfaction can set in when the terms of an individual's psycho logical contract
are not met. According to Argyris's incongruency thesis, the principles of formal
organization tend to encourage psychological immaturity in the average employee.
He believes that the demands of the typical organization are incongruent with the
psychological needs of the individual, and individuals naturally strive to be mature
but the organizations that employ them often encourage immature behavior.
Within the context of strategic human resource management, staffing
encompasses human resource
planning, acquisition, and development aimed at providing the talent necessary for
organizational success. Four key staffing activities necessarily linked to organizational
strategy and structure are: (1) human resource planning, (2) selection, (3) perform
ance appraisal, and (4) training. A systems approach to human resource planning
will help management devise staffing strategies for future hu man resource needs.
As the organization's gatekeeper for vital human resources, employee selection should
be more than a haphazard process of looking around for people to fill vacancies.
There are relative advantages to promoting an insider as opposed to transferring
in or hiring an outsider. Federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws require managers
to make hiring and other personnel decisions on the basis of ability to perform
rather than personal prejudice. Because interviews are the most popular employee
screening device, experts recommend structured rather than traditional, informal
interviews. A structured interview may be defined as a series of job-related questions
with predetermined answers that are constantly applied across all interviews for
a particular job.
Legally defensible performance appraisals (the process of evaluating
individual job performance) enable managers to make objective personnel decisions.
Of the three general approaches to performance appraisal – trait, behavior, and
outcome – the behavior-oriented approach is the most strongly recommended. The rationale
is that behavior, not personal traits or abilities, is ultimately responsible for
job success or failure. Listed in declining order of popularity, six common performance
appraisal techniques are goal setting, written essays, critical incidents (specific
instances of inferior and superior performance are documented by the supervisor
when they occur), graphic rating scales, weighted checklists (evaluators check appropriate
adjectives or behavioral descriptions that have predetermined weight), and ranking/comparisons.
Managers are challenged both to evaluate performance and to develop human potential
during the performance appraisal process. This dilemma can be partially resolved
by encouraging subordinates to engage in self-evaluation before offering constructive
feedback on performance.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
synergistic
relationship, employer, employee, dissatisfaction,
term, incongruency, immaturity, average, acquisition, trait, defensible, vital,
vacancy, hiring, outsider, prejudice, haphazard.
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1) Why do student have strong concerns about their future organ izational
life?
2) What does staffing encompass?
3) What are key staffing activities?
4) What is the most popular employee screening
device?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1. Legally defensible performance appraisals
|
a) staffing encompasses human resource planning, acquisition,
and development.
|
2. A systems approach to human resource planning
|
b) when the terms of an individual's psycho logical contract are
not met.
|
3. Serious dissatisfaction can set in
|
c) will help management devise staffing strategies for future
hu man resource needs
|
4. Within the context of strategic human resource management,
|
d) enable managers to make objective personnel decisions.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
Federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws (require/offer) managers
to make hiring and other personnel decisions on the basis of ability to (transform/perform)
rather than personal prejudice.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe staffing, incongruency thesis, structured
interview, performance appraisals, behavior-oriented approach, critical incidents
using the suggested words and expressions as in example:
staffing
success,
resource, acquisition, organizational, development, necessary, encompasses
example:
Staffing
encompasses human resource
planning, acquisition, and development aimed at providing the talent necessary
for organizational success.
|
incongruency thesis
encourage, psychological needs, immaturity, behavior, strive, average, mature
|
structured interview
questions, predetermined, particular, constantly, series, applied, answers
|
performance appraisals
evaluating, objective, defensible, personnel, legally, make enable, individual
|
behavior-oriented approach
traits, failure, responsible, rationale, abilities, job, ultimately, personal
|
critical incidents
inferior, performance, documented, superior, occur, instances, supervisor
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: There are relative advantages to promoting
an insider as opposed to transferring in or hiring an outsider.
2) Question:
Answer: Apart from the formal employment contract,
an informal and often unspoken psychological contract exists between employee and
employer.
3) Question:
Answer: A systems approach to human resource planning
will help management devise staffing strategies for future hu man resource needs.
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested
words: resolved, feedback, subordinates, both, during
Managers are challenged _____ to evaluate performance and to develop
human potential _____ the performance appraisal process. This dilemma can be partially
________ by encouraging _____ to engage in self-evaluation before offering constructive
________ on performance.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the
topics (up to 100 words):
“Staffing”
“Performance appraisals”
“Human Resource Management”
Lesson 8 The reading module
Read the text: Communicating
Observational research indicates that
managers at all levels spend the majority of their workday communicating. Communication
is a social process involving the transfer of information and understanding. Links
in the communication process include sender, encode, medium, decode, receiver, and
feedback. Noise is not an integral part of the chainlike communication process,
but it may influence the process at any or all points. As the term is used here,
noise is any interference with the normal flow of understanding from one person
to another.
Perception is important to communication
because it helps senders and receivers give meanings to environmental stimuli, including
messages. Three perceptual subprocesses are selectivity, organization, and inter
pretation. Perceptual defense enables one to screen out irrelevant stimuli, and
perceptual set does the opposite. Grouping, figure-ground, and closure help people
perceptually organize otherwise meaningless stimuli. Specialists often interpret
situations differently because of their restricted perspectives.
Four dynamics of organizational communication are structural consid
erations, the grapevine, nonverbal communication, and upward communication. Research suggests a trend toward greater centralization
of the overall communication function. The unofficial and informal communication
system that sometimes complements and sometimes disrupts the formal communication
system has been labeled the grapevine. A sample of managers surveyed had predominantly
negative feelings toward it. Recognizing that the grapevine cannot be extinguished,
managers are advised to monitor it constructively. Nonverbal communication, including
facial, gestural, and postural body language, accounts for most of the impact of
face-to-face communication. Managers can become more effective communicators by
doing a better job of receiving and giving nonverbal communication. Upward communication
refers to a process of systematically encouraging subordinates to share with management
their feelings and ideas. It can be stimulated by using formal grievance procedures,
employee attitude and opinion surveys, suggestion boxes, an open-door policy, informal
gripe session, task forces, and exit interviews.
Process, physical, semantic, and psychosocial barriers and sexist
communication are common organizational communication problems. Awareness of the
various barriers can improve communication effectiveness. Constructive steps also
can be taken to become a better listener, writer, and meeting chairperson.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise
1. Read
and memorize using a dictionary:
transfer,
sender, receiver, decode, interference, perception, interpretation, perceptual
defense, restricted perspectives, disrupt, sample, attitude, opinion survey, grievance,
extinguish, feedback
|
Exercise
2. Answer the questions:
1) What
is communication?
2) Why is
perception important?
3) How can
managers become
more effective communicators?
4) What
enables one to
screen out irrelevant stimuli?
Exercise
3. Match
the left part with the right:
1. Perception is important to communication
|
a) structural consid erations, the grapevine, nonverbal communication,
and upward communication.
|
2. Research suggests a trend toward
|
b) because it helps senders and receivers give meanings to environmental
stimuli, including messages.
|
3. Communication is a social
process
|
c) greater centralization of the overall communication function.
|
4. Four dynamics of organizational communication are
|
d) the transfer of information and understanding.
|
Exercise
4. Open brackets choosing
the right words:
(Recognizing/disagreeing) that the grapevine cannot be extinguished,
managers are (dissuaded/advised) to monitor it constructively.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe communication,
noise, grapevine, nonverbal communication, upward communication using the suggested
words and expressions as in example:
|
communication
receiver, links, process, medium, transfer, feedback, sender,
social, involving
example:
Communication
is a social process involving the transfer of information and understanding. Links
in the communication process include sender, encode, medium, decode, receiver,
and feedback.
|
|
noise
interference, flow, person, chainlike, influence,
integral, process, understanding
|
|
grapevine
disrupt, unofficial, complements, informal, communication,
sometimes, system
|
nonverbal communication
effective, face-to-face, body language, including,
communicators, gestural, impact, facial
|
|
|
|
|
upward communication
share, ideas, opinion, open-door policy, subordinates,
feelings, surveys, grievance, attitude
|
|
|
|
|
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: Spe cialists often interpret
situations differently because of their restricted perspectives.
2) Question:
Answer: Perceptual defense enables one to screen
out irrelevant stimuli, and perceptual set does the opposite.
3) Question:
Answer: Managers can become more effective communicators
by doing a better job of receiving and giving nonverbal communication
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise
1. Complete the sentences with the
suggested words: meaningless, does, screen, perceptual, closure
Three ______subprocesses are selectivity, organization, and inter
pretation. Perceptual defense enables one to ______ out irrelevant stimuli, and
perceptual set _____the opposite. Grouping, figure-ground, and ______help people
perceptually organize otherwise ______stimuli.
Exercise 3. Compose a story on one of the
topics (up to 100 words):
“Communication is a social process”
“Perception
is essential to communication”
“Four dynamics of organizational
communication”
Lesson 9 The reading module
Read the text: Motivation
Motivation refers to psychological process
that gives behavior purpose and direction. It is an important area of study for
managers because it helps them better understand our most valuable resource, people.
(Realistically, motivation is just one of many explanations of work behavior, such
as one’s knowledge and emotional state and organizational factors.) Even though
the employees in one study ranked “interesting work” the highest among the things
they wanted from their jobs, their supervisors believed that wanted “good wages”
above all else. This type of misperception of employees’ needs can cripple a motivation
program. Pollster D. Yankelovich contends that traditional motivation tools such
as fear, money, strict supervision, and the work ethic are inappropriate for nearly
half of today’s labor force in the USA.
Among alternative motivation theories,
Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and expectancy theory
stand out as particularly relevant for managers. According to Maslov’s message, people
always have needs, and when one need is relatively fulfilled, others emerge in a
predictable sequence to take its place. His five-level needs hierarchy, although empirically
criticized, makes it clear to managers that people are motivated by emerging rather
than fulfilled needs. Assuming that job satisfaction and performance are positively related,
Herzberg believes that the most that wages and working conditions can do is eliminate
sources of dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the key to true satisfaction
and hence motivation is an enriched job that provides an opportunity for achievement,
responsibility, and personal growth. Expectancy theory is based on the idea that
the strength of one's motivation to work is the product of perceived probabilities
of acquiring personally valued rewards. Both effort-performance and performance-reward
probabilities are important to expectancy theory.
Depending on how it is designed, a job
can either hamper or promote personal growth and satisfaction. Although historically
a key to higher productivity, specialization of labor has been associated with costly
human problems in recent years. Managers have the options of fitting people to jobs
or fitting jobs to people when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor
dilemma. The first option includes realistic job previews (honest explanations of
what a job actually entails), job rotation( periodically moving people from one
specialized job to another), and limited exposure (establishing a challenging yet
but fair daily performance standard or quota, and letting employees go home when
it is reached). Managers who pursue the second option, fitting jobs to people, can
either enlarge (combine two or more tasks into a single job) or enrich (redesign
a job to increase its motivating potential) jobs. Job enrichment vertically loads
jobs to meet individual needs for meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge
of results. Personal desire for growth and a supportive climate are required for
successful job enrichment.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:
Misperception,
strict supervision, inappropriate, job satisfaction, enriched job, achievement,
responsibility, personal growth, expectancy theory, perceived probabilities, hamper,
exposure.
|
Exercise 2. Answer the questions:
1) Why is motivation an important area of study
for managers?
2) What can cripple a motivation program?
3) What is the key to true satisfaction, according
to Herzberg?
4) What idea is expectancy theory based on?
Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:
1. Managers have the options of fitting people to jobs or fitting
jobs to people
|
a) are inappropriate for nearly half of today’s labor force in
the USA
|
2. Yankelovich contends that traditional motivation tools
|
b) the most that wages and working conditions can do is eliminate
sources of dissatisfaction.
|
3. Herzberg believes that
|
c) are important to expectancy theory.
|
4. Both effort-performance and performance-reward probabilities
|
d) when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor dilemma.
|
Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:
Expectancy theory is based on the idea
that the (weakness/strength) of one's motivation to work is the product of perceived
probabilities of acquiring personally (valued/rejected) rewards.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe motivation, needs hierarchy theory, two-factor theory, expectancy theory, limited exposure using the suggested words and
expressions as in example:
motivation
valuable,
behavior, purpose, knowledge, psychological, direction, understand
example
Motivation
refers to psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction. It
is an important area of study for managers because it helps them better understand
our most valuable resource, people. Motivation is one of many explanations of
work behavior, such as one’s knowledge and emotional state and organizational
factors.
|
needs hierarchy theory
predictable, relatively, sequence, emerge, needs, fulfilled, place, motivated,
predictable
|
two-factor theory
enriched, opportunity, responsibility, satisfaction, provides, growth, job
|
expectancy theory
rewards, acquiring, product, probabilities, performance, effort, valued,
personally
|
limited exposure
performance, quota, home, reached, fair, go, daily, letting, establishing
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: Job enrichment vertically loads jobs to
meet individual needs for meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results.
2) Question:
Answer: Depending on how it is designed, a job
can either hamper or promote personal growth and satisfaction.
3) Question:
Answer: Managers have the options of fitting people
to jobs or fitting jobs to people when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor
dilemma.
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested
words: misperception, though, above, from, ranked
Even _____the employees in one study _____“interesting work” the
highest among the things they wanted _____their jobs, their supervisors believed
that wanted “good wages” ______all else. This type of _____ of employees’ needs
can cripple a motivation program.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the
topics (up to 100 words):
“Motivation is an important area of study for managers”
“Motivation theories”
“Job design”
Lesson 10 The reading module
Read the text: Group dynamics
Managers need a working understanding
of group dynamics because groups are the basic social building blocks of organizations.
Both informal (friendship) and formal (work) groups are made up of two or more freely
interacting individuals who have a common identity and purpose. After someone has
been attracted to a group, cohesiveness—a "we" feelings encourages
continued membership. Roles are social expectations for behavior in a specific position,
whereas norms are more general standards for conduct in a given social setting.
Norms are enforced because they help the group survive, clarify role expectations,
protect self-images, and enhance the group's identity by emphasizing key values.
Compliance with role expectations and norms is rewarded with social reinforcement;
non-compliance is punished by criticism, ridicule, and ostracism. Ostracism, or
rejection from the group, is figuratively the capital punishment of group dynamics.
Informal groups derive much of their power over individual through the ever present
threat of ostracism.
Mature groups that are characterized by
mutual acceptance, encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal emotional conflict
are the product of a developmental process with identifiable stages. During the
first three stages – orientation, conflict and challenge, and cohesion – power and
authority problems are resolved. Groups are faced with the obstacle of uncertainty
over interpersonal relations during the last three stages – delusion (members believe that
all the difficult emotional problems have been solved), disillusion (the delusion
of unlimited goodwill wears off, and there is a growing disenchantment with how
things are turning out), and acceptance (greater personal and mutual understanding
helps members adapt to situations without causing problems). Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency
and ineffectiveness because
they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group development.
Trust is a key ingredient of
effective group action that is clearly evident in Japanese management but often
underutilized by American managers. When work group members trust one another, there
will be a more active exchange of information, more interpersonal influence, and
hence greater self-control. Managers who prefer either/or thinking, rely solely
on hard data, and envision the world as basically an unsafe place foster a climate
of mistrust. Political tactics such as posturing, empire building, making the boss
look good, creating power and loyalty cliques, and destructive competition need
to be kept in check if a healthy degree of trust is to be achieved.
Although a fairly high degree
of conformity is necessary if organizations and society in general are to
function properly, blind conformity is ultimately dehumanizing and destructive.
Research shows that individuals have a strong tendency to bend to the will of the
majority, even if the majority is clearly wrong. Cohesive decision-making groups
can be victimized by groupthink when unanimity becomes more important than critically
evaluating alternative courses of action.
I. Reading Exercises:
Exercise
1. Read
and memorize using a dictionary:
cohesiveness,
compliance with,
mutual acceptance,
delusion, disillusion,
interpersonal
influence, envision, mistrust, loyalty, destructive, conformity, minority, obstacle
|
Exercise
2. Answer the questions:
1) What
obstacles are groups faced with?
2) What
is compliance
with role expectations and norms rewarded with?
3) Why is trust a key ingredient of effective
group action?
4) Why are
norms enforced?
Exercise
3. Match
the left part with the right:
1. Mature groups that are characterized by
|
a) whereas norms are more general standards for conduct in a given
social setting.
|
2 When work group members trust one another
|
b) because they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group
development.
|
3. Roles are social expectations for behavior in a specific position
|
c) there will be a more active exchange
of information, more interpersonal influence.
|
4. Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency and ineffectiveness
|
d) mutual acceptance, encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal
emotional conflict.
|
Exercise
4. Open brackets choosing
the right words:
Compliance with role expectations and
norms is (stalled/rewarded) with social reinforcement; non-compliance is (punished/accepted)
by criticism, ridicule, and ostracism.
The speaking module
II. Speaking Exercises:
Exercise 1. Describe mature groups, trust, ostracism, norms, disillusion
using the suggested words and expressions as in example:
Mature groups
Emotional
conflict, developmental process, encouragement, identifiable, opinion, are characterized by.
example: Mature groups that are characterized by mutual acceptance,
encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal emotional conflict are the product
of a developmental process with identifiable stages.
|
ostracism
informal, punishment, power, rejection, derive, threat,
individual, present
|
trust
information, influence, effective, one another, interpersonal,
a key ingredient
|
norms
setting, survive, enhance, identity, enforced, self-images,
clarify, standards
|
disillusion
wears off, disenchantment, how, turning out, goodwill,
growing, things, unlimited,
|
Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:
1) Question:
Answer: Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency
and ineffectiveness because
they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group development.
2) Question:
Answer: Groups are faced with the obstacle of
uncertainty over interpersonal relations during the last three stages .
3) Question:
Answer:
Managers who prefer
either/or thinking, rely solely on hard
data, and envision the world as basically an unsafe place foster
a climate of mistrust.
The writing module
III. Writing exercises:
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: victimized,
majority, than, tendency, shows.
Research _____that individuals
have a strong ______ to bend to the will of the majority, even if the ______ is
clearly wrong. Cohesive decision-making groups can be ______ by groupthink when
unanimity becomes more important _____ critically evaluating alternative courses
of action.
Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):
“Formal and informal groups”
“Mature
groups”
“Trust
and mistrust in groups”