Ñategory of number of nouns
Ñategory of number of nouns
Introduction
Number is the
grammatical category of the noun which shows whether we speak of one thing or
of more than one. The category of number is expressed by the opposition
of the plural form of the noun to its singular form.
Accordingly,
there are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
The problem of
category of number of nouns is very essential nowadays. Russian and English
languages have different grammatical, syntactical and phonetic forms of
expression. These languages have nouns which are used only in the singular, only
in the plural and both in singular and plural. A lot of people in the process
of communication make mistakes because they don’t know rules and laws necessary
for exact case.
The goal of
the present work is to study the category of number of English nouns and
compare it with the Russian ones.
Objectives of
the present work:
1.
To consider the category of number of nouns
2.
To study different types of number
3.
To analyze the formation and meaning of number
4.
To study different cases of usage of category of number of nouns
5.
To consider the development of plural forms in connection with a
change of meaning of the noun
6.
To study Russian category of number of nouns, different cases of
usage
Practical
significance of this work is that it can be used in educational establishments,
at classes on theoretical and practical grammar. This work can be useful for
students, studying English language.
The term-paper
consists of content, introduction, three main chapters, conclusion,
bibliography and appendix.
1.
The Problem of Category of Number in Modern English
1.1
The Category of Number of Nouns
The category
of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to
its singular form. The semantic difference of the oppositional members of the category
of number in many linguistic works is treated traditionally: the meaning of
the singular is interpretation as «one» and the meaning of the plural as «many»
(more than one).
As the
traditional interpretation of the singular and the plural members does not work
in many cases, recently the categorical meaning of the plural has been
reconsidered and now it is interpreted as the denotation of «the potentially
dismembering reflection of the structure of the referent».
The
categorical opposition of number is subjected to the process of
oppositional reduction. Neutralization takes place when countable nouns begin
to function as Singularia Tantum nouns, denoting in such cases either abstract
ideas or some mass material, e.g. on my birthday we always have goose; or
when countable nouns are used in the function of the Absolute Plural: the board
are not unanimous on the question. A stylistically marked transposition is
achieved by the use of the descriptive uncountable plural (the fruits
of the toil are not always visible) and the «repetition plural» (car
after car rushed past me). In Modern English the form of the singular of
nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion. Nouns in
plural are characterized by ending «-s (-es)».
The meaning of
number expresses by grammatical forms is extremely generalized. Concrete
meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and
grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion
indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion
indicates more than one things.
The presence
in language of such ways of expressing a generalized meaning of number must be
considered as a result of a process of abstraction formed by the human thought for
a long period of time. [1]
Modern English
like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural.
The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the
opposition: one – more than one. The essential meaning of the category (in
nouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings of
nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically
through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing
and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one
things.
1.2 Types of Number
a)
Singular versus plural. In most languages with grammatical number, nouns, and
sometimes other parts of speech, have two forms, the singular, for one instance
of a concept, and the plural, for more than one instance. Usually, the singular
is the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting the
singular.
b)
Collective versus singulative. Some languages differentiate between a basic
form, the collective, which is indifferent in respect to number, and a more
complicated derived form for single entities, the singulative. A rough example
in English is «snowflake», which may be considered a singulative form of «snow»
(although English has no productive process of forming singulative nouns, and
no singulative modifiers).
c) Dual number. The distinction between a «singular» number (one) and a
«plural» number (more than one) found in English is not the only possible
classification. Another one is «singular» (one), «dual» (two) and «plural» (more
than two). Dual number existed in Proto-Indo-European. Many more modern
Indo-European languages show residual traces of the dual, as in the English
distinctions both versus all and better versus best.
d) Trial number. The trial number is a grammatical number referring to
'three items', in contrast to 'singular' (one item), 'dual' (two items), and
'plural' (four or more items). There is a hierarchy between number categories:
No language distinguishes a trial unless having a dual, and no language has dual
without a plural. English, along with the other Germanic languages and most
Romance languages, uses the plural.
e) Distributive plural. Distributive plural number, for many instances
viewed as independent individuals (e.g. in Navajo).
In most languages, the singular is formally unmarked, whereas the
plural is marked in some way. Other languages, most notably the Bantu
languages, mark both the singular and the plural, for instance Swahili (see
example above). The third logical possibility, rarely found in languages, is
unmarked plural contrasting with marked singular.
Elements marking number may appear on nouns and pronouns in
dependent-marking languages or on verbs and adjectives in head-marking
languages.
There are
several types of number: singular versus plural, collective versus singulativ,
dual number, trial number and distributive plural. But Modern English like most
other languages distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural
1.3
Meaning and Formation of Number
1. In
Modern English the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion
(íóëåâàÿ ôëåêñèÿ): book, boy,
girl.
The plural is
formed by the inflexion – (e) s [z, s, iz]: boy – boys, book –
books, box – boxes.
Compare the
Russian noun ñòîë (ñòîëû) which also
has a zero-inflexion in the nominative case of the singular, with the noun ðåêà (ðåêè), which has a
positive inflexion in the nominative case of the singular as well as of the
plural.
The inflexion –
(e) s is a modification of the Old English plural inflexion – as. In
Old English there were several ways of forming the plural; the – as inflexion
which was used only with masculine nouns, later on in its modified form (-as>-es>-s)
became the general inflexion of the plural of nouns.
The plural inflexion
is pronounced [iz] after voiced consonants and vowels: cabs, raids, tables,
pens, factories, tractors; [s] after voiceless consonants: books,
pilots, pipes; [iz] after sibilants: classes, bushes, branches, boxes.
Note. – Nouns
ending in a mute – e preceded by a sibilant, in spelling – se, ce, – ze,
– (d) ge, add the inflexion – s [iz] horse – horses; price – prices;
size – sizes; bridge – bridges: village – villages.
2. With
some nouns the final voiceless consonant is changed into a corresponding voiced
consonant before the inflexion – es [z] is added. To this group belong:
a) Nouns
ending in – fe or – f [f]. The f is changed into v (consonant
interchange), and the inflexion – es [z] is added: knife–knives;
shelf – shelves; wife – wives.
Note. – Some
nouns ending in – f or – ff, simply add – s [s] in the plural: roof
– roofs; chief – chiefs; handkerchief – handkerchiefs;
cliff – cliffs; cuff – cuffs; muff – muffs.
The following
nouns have double forms: hoof – hoofs, hooves; scarf – scarfs,
scarves.
b) Some
nouns ending in – th [θ], change the θ into [3]: mouth
[mauθ] – mouths [mauθz]; path [pa:θ] – paths
[pa:θz]; bath [ba:θ] – baths [ba:3z].
c) The
noun house [haus] – houses ['hauziz].
Peculiarities
of Spelling. Notice the following:
a) When a noun ends
in – y preceded by a consonant is replaced by – i and the
ending – es [iz] is added: city – cities; country – countries;
penny – pennies (when a sum of money and not separate coins is meant
the plural form pence is used: It costs five pence. But: Five
pennies were lying on the table).
b) When a noun
ends in – o with a preceding consonant, – es [z] is usually
added: hero – heroes; Negro–Negroes; potato – potatoes; tomato
– tomatoes. But: piano – pianos; photo – photos; zero
– zeros.
c) The plural of
proper names and other parts of speech, figures, letters, etc. when
substantivized, are sometimes written in the ordinary way, sometimes with an 's
added:
The two Mary's
or the two Marys (y remains unchanged). Mind your P's
and Q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Don't use so many buts.
Oh, no, no, a
thousand no's. [17]»… Mr. Copperfield objected to my threes
and fives being too much alike each other, or to my putting
curly tails to my sevens and nines,» resumed my mother. [10]
3. Some nouns are
survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural:
a) By changing
the root-vowel (vowel interchange): man – men, woman – women,
foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice;
b) By changing
the root-vowel (vowel interchange) and adding the inflexion [en], in spelling –
en: child – children; brother – brethren.1
4. Plural of Compound
Nouns.
a) In compound nouns
usually the head-noun takes the plural form: fellow-worker – fellow-workers;
school-mate – school-mates; air-raid – air-raids; editor-in-chief
– editors-in-chief; brother-in-law – brothers-in-law.
b)Compounds ending in – man change – man into –
men in spelling, but in pronunciation there is no difference between the
singular and the plural: postman ['poustman] – postmen ['poustman].
Such nouns as German,
Roman, and Norman are not compounds. They form their plural in the usual
way: Germans, Romans, Normans.
c) When the
compound does not contain any noun, the plural is formed by adding – s to
the last word: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots; merry-go-round (êàðóñåëü) – merry-go-rounds;
hold-all (ïîðò ïëåä) – hold-alls;
overall – overalls.
d)Compounds in – fut add – s to the end: handful
– handfuls; spoonful – spoonfuls; but also: columns-full (in
newspapers).
e) If a proper noun
is preceded by a title, the sign of the plural is added either to the title or
to the proper noun itself; in colloquial speech it is usual to add the – s to
the proper noun; in official speech the title is pluralized.
Colloquial: The
two doctor Thompsons. The Miss Smiths Official: Messrs Jones.
The Misses Smith.
The Miss Crumptons
or to quote the authorities of the inscription on the garden-gate: The Misses
Crumpton. [10]
f) An
adjectivized noun in attributive function is, as a rule, used in the singular
even if the meaning is plural: a four-storey house, a five-act play, the
printed-book section of a museum.
It was a three-mile
walk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon.
[9]
There is,
however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especially
in long official terms: a two-thirds majority; the food products department;
the sports grounds; the United Nations Organization; parcels post.
Two powerful
engines were pulling a goods train up the sharp incline… [4]
Streams of
people were pouring out from the Sports Ground… [4]
In many
instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the
plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, the
use of the apostrophe wavers:
a) No
apostrophe:
I enjoyed
several hours sleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. I
had only two shillings pocket money. A bridge of only two planks
breadth.
b) An
apostrophe:
A five years'
child. The Seven Years’ War. A two months' baby.
…it was a
two-and-a half hours' drive. [21]
5. Plural
Identical in Form With the Singular. – Some nouns have one form for both
singular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).
Those nouns
are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly
forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.
The following
nouns have one form for both singular and plural:
a) Names
of some animals: sheep, deer, swine:
… The sheep on the
Downs lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!'
'…Oh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]
b) The
noun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout, cod,
pike, salmon:
One day he
caught a beautiful big fish… [11] In the water tiny fish
swam between the olive growths of seaweed… [8] I know where trout are
rising and where the salmon leap. [24]
To denote
kinds of fish the form fishes is used:
There were
many fishes in the net. She has bought a large book on our
freshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.
c) Names
indicating number such as dozen, pair, couple, and score (äâàäöàòü), when they are
preceded by a numeral: two pair of gloves; five score of eggs;
three dozen of shirts.
But the plural
is also used:
He had… two pairs
of stockings in his bundle. [10]
Note. – After many
and few both forms are found: so many pair of
wings, a great many pairs of gloves; a few score(s) of heads.
d) We
have survivals of the old uninflected plural in kind, sort, and manner.
The usual construction is now to keep kind, sort, and manner unchanged,
but to use the plural these (those) if the word following of is
plural (these kind of tools). But this construction is by many considered
grammatically incorrect and therefore in careful literary speech books of
that kind are preferred to the colloquial those kind of
books:
These kinds
of pens. Such kind of duties. Those sort of speeches.
e) The
noun foot (measure of length) is feet in the plural. The plural foot
is used when followed by a number indicating inches:
…I'm five foot
eleven in my socks. [2] And was she tall enough? Only five foot five.
[21]
f) The noun pound
(indicating money) has usually the s-plural except when followed by a numeral
indicating shillings: two pounds, but: two pound ten.
g) The nouns species
and series borrowed from the Latin have also one form for both
singular and plural:
A series
of very, interesting experiments has been made in our laboratory. Two
admirable series of the masters of Russian literature have been
published recently. What a pretty species of roses! Many beautiful species
of roses are cultivated in our garden.
6. Foreign
Plurals. – Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or
Greek) from which they have been borrowed:
Memorandum
[am] – memoranda [ý]; datum [am] – data [3]; phenomenon [an] – phenomena [aj; crisis
[iz] – crises [i:zj; nucleus [ias] – nuclei [iai]; terminus [as] – termini
[ai]; stimulus [as] – stimuli [at]; formula [a] – formulae [i:J; index –
indices [i:z].
Words that are
much used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes,
terminuses.
In all
countries the broadest strata of the population
have been mobilized in support of this great cause – the preservation of peace.
Then the pied
wind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi, the fairest among
them all… [22]… the rest of the house had grown, emerging here and
there into small oases of modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memoranda
on his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning to
Presley. [14]
Traditionally,
the plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s, the singular form of the nouns
is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways of
the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of the word, also there
are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English
plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in – s is
used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as
the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural.
Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected
plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged
plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or
Greek) from which they have been borrowed.
1.4
Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural
It is quite
evident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) which
denote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shape
or having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. To
the group of nouns which have both numbers belong:
a) Concrete
nouns: a girl – two girls; a book – two books; a flower – two
flowers.
He took the
loaf back to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loaves stood
on the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyes… One
flower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]
b) Abstract
nouns: a day – two days; an event – two events; a task – two tasks.
Captain Cuttle
liked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in our
midst, a generation actuated by new ideas and new principles.
[11] It was a momentary thought… [10] Andrew went back to
Christine that evening with his thoughts in a maze. [23] I tried
to shout but my voice was not very loud. [13] Voices and
footsteps were heard in the passage… [19]
Nouns which
have both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in the
singular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular or
plural), many and few (in the plural):
A ring
at the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door.
[21] What a night to wander out in! [21] Towards the evening of
the following day…a letter arrived addressed to herself. [19] A,
few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terrace… [21] He had many invitations
to dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porch
made by two yew trees and some flowering-current bushes,
the girl disappeared into the house. [21]
1.5
Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum
The most
general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the
lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into
countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The constant categorial feature «quantitative
structure» is directly connected with the variable feature «number», since
uncountable nouns are treated grammatically as either singular or plural.
Namely, the singular uncountable nouns are modified by the non-discrete
quantifiers much or little, and they take the finite verb in the
singular, while the plural uncountable nouns take the finite verb in the
plural.
The two
subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as
singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). [27] The
nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluralia
tantum» (which is the Latin for «plural only»), and those which have only a
singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum» (the Latin for «singular
only'') [26] In terms of oppositions we may say that in the formation of the
two subclasses of uncountable nouns the number opposition is «constantly» (lexically)
reduced either to the weak member (singularia tantum) or to the strong member
(pluralia tantum).
Since the
grammatical form of the uncountable nouns of the singularia tantum subclass is
not excluded from the category of number, it stands to reason to speak of it as
the «absolute» singular, as different from the «correlative» or «common» singular
of the countable nouns. The absolute singular excludes the use of the modifying
numeral one, as well as the indefinite article. [27]
The most
general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the
lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into
countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and
no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only a
singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum».
1.6
Nouns Used Only in the Singular or Singularia Tantum
Nouns denoting
things which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted and
therefore have no distinction between singular and plural; they are used only
in the singular. Such nouns may be called uncountable or mass-nouns. To the
group of nouns used only in the singular belong:
a) Concrete
nouns:
1. Names
of materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air.
On my breakfast
table there is a pot of honey. [21]… there was the cool sound of
milk dropping into pails… [21] We didn't take beer or wine.
[11] Seizing ink and writing-paper, she began
to write… [21]
2. Some
collective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen (áåëüå), machinery,
furniture:
Birds
fluttered softly in the wet shrubbery… [21] He had chosen the
furniture himself. [21]… he took a narrow ride up through a dark bit
of mixed timber with heavy undergrowth. (Galsworthy.)
b) Abstract
nouns: friendship, joy patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage,
information, progress, etc.: There was a great deal of confusion
and laughter and noise… [11] It was beautiful weather.
(Lawrence.) At parting, my aunt gave me some good advice… [10]
A sudden tide of joy went leaping out of his heart. [11]
Nouns used
only in the singular (uncountable) have no article where a noun which expresses
both numbers (countable) would be associated with the indefinite article; they
may be used with the pronouns what, some, much or little:
Perfect
harvest weather; but oppressively still… [21]
Everyone gave him advice… [11] Of course-this was good news.
[7] «What delightful weather we are having!» [20] What
beauty, what stillness! [21] He had anticipated much pleasure
in this afternoon's reading… [9] «But have some tea. I've
just made it.» [21]
Some
collective nouns used only in the plural also belong to the group of
uncountable such as: goods, sweepings, tidings, etc.
1.7
Nouns Used Only in the Plural
1. A number of
nouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural does
not indicate several objects but denotes a composite whole.
2. To the group
of nouns which are used only in the plural form belong:
a) The
names of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors,
trousers, spectacles, scales (âåñû), eye-glasses, tongs (ùèïöû):
These scissors
are sharp. Your spectacles are on the table. Your opera-glasses are very
good.
b) Nouns
which have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):
1. Concrete:
stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals [vitlz]
(ïðîâèçèÿ), supplies,
clothes, sweepings, slops (ïîìîè), preserves (êîíñåðâû), parings (êîæóðà), sweets,
lodgings (sometimes) lodging; but always board and lodging), etc.:
The car went
smoothly and swiftly through the outer suburbs… [4] Beads of
water still dripped from the eaves… [24] At last they reached the outskirts
of the forest… [15] «Got any lodgings – «No.» [10] «Come, hand in eatables.»
[10] My clothes were my Sunday best. [2] «I say, can you let a lodging?»
[7]
2. Abstract:
holidays, tidings, goings-on (ïîñòóïêè), begin nings (also beginning),
earnings, wages (often in the singular, especially in the following combinations:
a living wage, a fixed wage, a minimum wage), contents, etc.:
She tried to
adjust herself to her new surroundings. [4] These are indeed
happy tidings. We get good wages. They spent their holidays
in the mountains. Bad beginnings make good endings (ïåðâûé áëèí êîìîì). «Well,» said
Wardle, «here are pretty goings-on…» [10] He told me of some of his doings.
[5]
3. In
some nouns the final – s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the noun
is treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupations
in – ics: mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually considered
as singular:
Phonetics is the science
of sounds. Mathematics is his strong point. Optics is
a branch of physics; it treats of light.
These nouns
are treated as plurals when practical application is meant:
His phonetics
are excellent. The acoustics of this hall are
good.
Politics,
tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.
«The only
politics I understand,» answered Magnus sternly, «are honest politics.»
[6]
4. With
some nouns the usage wavers, and the noun is treated either as a singular or as
a plural:
The gas-works is (are) situated on
the river. Price's works was small. [5] To-day we are going to
visit a great smelting-works… [6]
It should be
noted that with regard to nouns used only in the plural the English and the
Russian usage sometimes differ. Thus the noun opera-glasses is used in
English only in the plural, whereas in Russian áèíîêëü has both numbers. The
noun ñàíè is used in
Russian only in the plural; in English sledge has both numbers. Other
nouns are used in one language only in the plural, in the other – only in the
singular. Thus in Russian the noun ñóìåðêè is used only in the plural, whereas in
English the noun twilight is used only in the singular.
1.8
Nouns Used in the Plural in a Special Sense
In some cases
the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables =
table + table…) but acquires a special meaning. Very often the
plural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaning
of the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:
colour = tint,
colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:
«I do not mean
regimental colours, but the watercolours.» [17]
custom = habit,
customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:
Many old customs
are dying out. Customs (ïîøëèíû) are duties imposed by law on goods
imported and exported.
pain =
suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:
She enlivened
our journey by describing to us… the various pains she had in her back. [11] «I
have examined Adele… and find you have taken great pains with her…
[2]
quarter = fourth part, quarters
= 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:
I have read
three quarters of the book. We found him ire his old quarters.
work = toil,
labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (ìåõàíèçì ÷àñîâ), works of
art, etc.
1.9
Double Plural Forms
Some nouns
have double plurals used with some difference of meaning:
f 1) brothers
(sons of one mother) brother – y 2) brethren (members
of one community)
J 1) geniuses
(men of genius) genius ^ 2) genii (spirits)
f 1) pennies
(number of coins) penny – y 2) pence (amount of pennies in
value)
(1) staffs (military
staffs [øòàá], staffs [øòàò] of an staff
institution)
I 2) staves
(sticks)
II) cloths (kinds
of cloth) cloth – clothes (articles of dress)
J I) indexes
(tables of contents) index – indices (in mathematics)
2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection with
a Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun
1. A number of
nouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may through
a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular
and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following
instances:
a) Material
nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers,
singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:
«This is a
very rare and most delicious wine. [10] There are many
different wines on this list. The teas (tobaccos) of
this plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.
Note. – When a
material noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes a
class-noun and may be used in both numbers:
Give me a
glass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron (two-new irons).
A copper, two coppers (ìåäíàÿ ìîíåòà, ìåäÿê).
b) The
noun hair is used in the singular (âîëîñû); a hair is used only with the
meaning of a few separate hairs (âîëîñîê, âîëîñêè):
…this girl's hair
was chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs. She
has more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs.
(Shakespeare.)
c) The
noun fruit is used in the singular. The plural form fruits denotes
different kinds of fruit:
The fruit is not yet
ripe. We have much fruit this year.
But: The
fruits were local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such other
products of the summer… [9]
The plural
form fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:
Fruits of the
workers' toil are buried in the strong coffers of a few. (The
International.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are
visible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizens
of other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.
d) Abstract
nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a general
sense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they express
concrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:
It has been
such a joy to see you and Holly. [21]… he sympathized with their joys
and grieves; [5]
…now I
remembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes and
fears, of sensations and excitements, awaited
those who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge of
life amidst its perils. [2]… May.night had fallen soft and
warm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices,
intrigues, passions, longings, and regrets of men and women.
[21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs, was the heroine of the
day. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]
Note. – When
such nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities but
people characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are used
in both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (êðàñàâèöà), a youth (þíîøà);
This girl is a
real beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are used
in English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian the
corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news,
business, advice, work (ðàáîòà), progress (óñïåõ), and others:
«What sort of work did you do?"[4] «You always give me good advice…»
[10] «This news has shaken me, Eliot.» [20] She is making
splendid progress in English.
To indicate
concrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or item
are used:
You tell them
one or two items of news. [11] «It is a very strange piece of
business!» I added… [2]»… I'd like to give you a little
piece of advice.» [24] She gave me one piece of intelligence,
which affected me very much… [10]
2. Sometimes
material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force:
The frozen
snows of the Arctic; the sands of the Sahara Desert; the blue
waters of the Mediterranean Sea; a thousand thanks; a thousand
pities.
The thunders bellowed over
the wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves.
[13]
«Thanks. A
thousand and one thanks. [19] Far off, rising in an immense slope…Etna
soars towards the heavens, sending from the summit, on which the
snows still linger, a steady plume of ivory smoke. [13]»… it would
be a thousand pities to throw away such a chance of fun.» [2] Far
below…I heard the «unseen tumbling of the waters. [23] «A
thousand pardons?» [10] At sleepy intervals the surf flung its foam across
the sands to the grass… [7]
3. A number of
nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of
meaning are used only in the singular (thus becoming uncountable). This is the
case:
a) When
the name of an animal is used to denote its flesh used as food:
A fat brown
goose lay at one end of the table… [11] (a countable noun) – While Gabriel and
Miss Daly exchanged plates of goose and plates of ham and spiced beef, Lily
went from guest to guest… [11] (an uncountable noun) Two white swans came
majestically by… [21] (a countable noun) «I have n-never eaten roast swan
b-before,» I stammered… [24] (an uncountable noun)
b) When
the names of trees are used to indicate the corresponding kind of wood as material
or as live plants:
And among the
oaks the bluebells stood in pools of azure… [22] (a countable noun) –
«Oak», he exclaimed. «All carved oak, right up the
ceiling…» [11] (an uncountable noun)… beautiful woods of birch, fir, and
pine cast their shadows through the carriage window as we speed
along. [19] (an uncountable noun)… a narrow strip of larch and beech…
stretched out towards the valley… [21] (uncountable nouns)… I come into a
lane, which winds upwards between grassy slopes to… woods of noble beech.
[21] (an uncountable noun)
c) When
the nouns tree, bush, twig, etc. do not indicate separate objects but an
indivisible whole (compare with the meaning of such nouns as leafage, blossom,
brushwood, also with the Russian ëèñòâà, öâåò, êóñòàðíèê – ñîáèðàòåëüíûå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå):
It (the tree)
was covered with young blossoms, pink and t white…;
and on this entire blossom! The sunlight glistened. [21] (1. a
countable noun; 2. an uncountable noun) – … the may-flower, both
pink and white, was in full bloom. [21] (a countable noun)… an old orchard of
apple-trees just breaking into flower, stretched down to a stream
and a long wild meadow. [21] (an uncountable noun)… a few gold leaves
are still hanging… [21] (a countable noun) The apple-tree was in leaf,
and all but in flower – its crimson buds just bursting. [7] (uncountable
nouns) In that early spring a few buds were showing already. [7]
(a countable noun) – He leaned against one of the satin-smooth stems, under the
lacery of twig and bud. [7] (uncountable nouns)
d) When the
name of an object is used to denote substance, that is, when it becomes the
name of a material:
The summits of
these vast mountains were enveloped in clouds… [1] (a countable
noun)… the sky was lined with a uniform sheet of dripping cloud… [9]
(an uncountable noun) Gemmy… presently returned with an egg beaten
up in milk. [22] (a countable noun) – Egg is on your coat, (an
uncountable noun) A load that lay on Hood's mind like a rock suddenly
rose like an eagle… [9] (a countable noun) – Grass ceases to grow, and the
track is almost lost to view among piles of loose slate rock. [20]
(an uncountable noun)
The plural
forms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning of
the noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are used
only in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the
forms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and
abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns
which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning
are used only in the singular.
3. Modes and
means of expression grammatical meaning of number in Russian language
The categories
of number form one opposition – singular and plural. Russian language hasn’t
special forms, which express only meaning of number. Six cases forms express
each of two meaning of number. Forms of case – it simultaneously forms of
gender and nouns.
Compare: sing. – ëåñ, ëåñà, ëåñó, ëåñ,
ëåñîì, î ëåñå; pl. – ëåñà, ëåñîâ, ëåñàì, ëåñà, ëåñàìè, î ëåñàõ1.
The inflexion
of nouns emerges as indicator of number express simultaneously grammatical
meaning of gender (singular) and case.
In separate
groups of name of nouns opposite singular and plural number express with the
help of suffixes – ÿ, – îâüÿ, – ec, which is additional grammatical means, because it
emerge together with the inflexion: çÿòü – çÿ[òÿ], êíÿçü – êíÿ[çÿ], ñûí – ñûí-î[âüÿ], íåáî – íåá-åñ-à,…
In nouns with
compound suffix – àí/èí (-ÿí/èí), ÷àí/÷èí, which
express meaning together with inflexion, in plural this suffix is absent and
meaning of number express only with the help of inflexion: ãðàæäàí/èí/Ø – ãðàæäàí/å, ñåâåðÿí/èí/Ø – ñåâåðÿí/å,…
In names of
animals’ baby singular number express with the help of suffix – îíîê (-åíîê), which in
plural interchange with suffix – àò-à (-ÿò-à): áóéâîë¸íîê – áóéâîëÿòà, ñêâîð÷îíîê – ñêâîð÷àòà, ñòðàóñ¸íîê – ñòðàóñÿòà…
Correlations
in the names of children meet seldom: êàçà÷îíîê – êàçà÷àòà, áàòðà÷îíîê – áàòðà÷àòà, áàð÷îíîê – áàð÷àòà. In the names
of mushrooms more seldom: îï¸íîê – îïÿòà, ìàñë¸íîê – ìàñëÿòà.
Interchange
consonants and transference of stress used for generated of form of number by
way of additional means.
Compare: 1) äðóã – äðó[çüÿ]
(ã-ç'); óõî – óøè (õ-ø); êëèí – êëèíüÿ (í-í'). 2) ìåñòî-ìåñòà, ìåñòàì, ìåñòàìè,
î ìåñòàõ.
In such a way,
meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner
resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress.
Used more analytical means – forms agreement.
Compare: çàáàâíûé ëèñ¸íîê – çàáàâíûå ëèñÿòà, ìî¸ óõî – ìîè óøè, ëåòèò ãóñü – ëåòÿò ãóñè.
Just
analytically (syntactically) express the category of number – indeclinable
nouns, which haven’t their inflexion.
Compare: êðàñèâîå êàøíå –
êðàñèâûå êàøíå, êàôå çàêðûòî – âñå êàôå áûëè çàêðûòû. Separate words have
suppletive forms of number: ÷åëîâåê – ëþäè, ðåá¸íîê – äåòè.
Figurative
used forms of the category of nouns.
Used form of
singular number meet often in the meaning of plural number. Example: Ðå÷ü èäåò î
íàñòîÿòåëüíîé íåîáõîäèìîñòè ñîçäàòü äëÿ äåòåé íîâóþ, ñîâåòñêóþ,
ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêóþ ïîïóëÿðíî-íàó÷íóþ è õóäîæåñòâåííî ÿðêóþ êíèãó.  ïîåçäêå ìû
âñòðåòèëèñü ñ øèðîêèì ìàññîâûì çðèòåëåì íàøèõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ðåñïóáëèê.
Forms of
plural number in the meaning of singular used in oral speech (â óíèâåðñèòåòàõ íå ó÷èëñÿ, èíñòèòóòîâ íå êîí÷àë) it is have
in view one university and one institute.
3.1
Nouns Used Only in the Singular
Nouns which
have only singular form and not used in plural belong to a group «Singularia
Tantum». They are:
1.
Uncountable nouns of material, substance (oil, butter, milk,
sugar, water, petroleum, steel, copper, wood, ice, gold…) In plural such
nouns denote different sorts of material. When denoting a certain object they
may have both singular and plural.
2.
Collective nouns (youth, the students, spruce forest)
3.
Abstract nouns (whiteness, cleanness, laziness, kindness,
thinness, enthusiasm, rush, mowing, walking, heat, dampness, thaw…)
4.
Proper names. These words get plural form if they used nominally
or denote group of people which have the same surname (gender of Tolstoy).
Proper names
denoting unique objects (sun, moon…)
Some abstract
nouns are used in English only in the singular whereas in Russian the
corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (information, advice, news,
knowledge…) «This news is pleasant» To indicate concrete instances of
information or advice the words «piece», «item» are used «It was the most
interesting item of information»
3.2
Nouns Used Only in the Plural
Nouns which
have only plural form and not used in singular belong to a group «Plularia
Tantum». They are:
1. The names
of things which consist of two similar halves (scissors, trousers,
spectacles, scales (âåñû), eye-glasses, tongs (ùèïöû), gates…) «Your
spectacles are on the table»
2. The names
of some games (chees, hide-and-seek, blind man’s buff…)
3. Denotation
of some distance (holidays, day, workdays, twilight…)
4. The names
of some mass of substance (pasta, perfume, ink, yeast…)
5. Proper
names which connected with first collective meaning (Alps, Carpathians…)
The categories
of number form one opposition – singular and plural. Russian language hasn’t
special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of case – it
simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number express
syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word:
inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare the
category of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as English
nouns, can be subdivided into groups – nouns used only in the singular (uncountable
nouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) and
nouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similar
halves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of some
mass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning.
Conclusion
Modern English
like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural.
The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the
opposition: one – more than one. The essential meaning of the category (in
nouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings of
nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically
through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing
and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one
things. There are several types of number: singular versus plural,
collective versus singulativ, dual number, trial number and distributive
plural. As has already been mentioned Modern English like most other languages
distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural. A zero
inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite
inflexion indicates more than one things. In Modern English the form of the
singular of nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion.
Nouns in plural are characterized by ending «-s (-es)». According this there
are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of
the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are
survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances
where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of
the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both
singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and
Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of
the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language
(Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed. The most
general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the
lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into
countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and
no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only a
singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum». In some cases the plural
form of the noun does not express were pluralities but acquire a special
meaning, some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning. The plural
forms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning of
the noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are used
only in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the
forms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and abstract
nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns which
express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are
used only in the singular. As for category of number Russian nouns – Russian
language hasn’t special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of
case – it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number express
syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word:
inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare the
category of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as English
nouns, can be subdivided into groups – nouns used only in the singular (uncountable
nouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) and
nouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similar
halves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of some
mass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning).
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