The origin and history of the English language
The origin and history of the English language
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«Гомельский государственный
университет им. Ф. Скорины»
Филологический
факультет
Курсовая
работа
THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Исполнитель:
Студентка
группы К-52
Ловренчук
Т.Е.
Гомель 2007
Содержание
Introduction
1. Origin of English language
2. History of English language
3. English literature
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction
In
order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those who, in
former times, gave particular attention to the culture of the English language,
and that we may the better judge of the credibility of modern pretensions to
further improvements, it seems necessary that we should know something of the
course of events through which its acknowledged melioration in earlier days
took place. For, in this case, the extent of a man's knowledge is the strength
of his argument. As Bacon quotes Aristotle, "Qui respiciunt ad pauca, de
facili pronunciant." He that takes a narrow view, easily makes up his
mind. But what is any opinion worth, if further knowledge of facts can confute
it?
Whatsoever
is successively varied, or has such a manner of existence as time can affect,
must have had both an origin and a progress; and may have also its particular history,
if the opportunity for writing it be not neglected. But such is the levity
of mankind, that things of great moment are often left without memorial, while
the hand of Literature is busy to beguile the world with trifles or with
fictions, with fancies or with lies. The rude and cursory languages of
barbarous nations, till the genius of Grammar arise to their rescue, are among
those transitory things which unsparing time is ever hurrying away,
irrecoverably, to oblivion. Tradition knows not what they were; for of their
changes she takes no account. Philosophy tells us, they are resolved into the
variable, fleeting breath of the successive generations of those by whom they
were spoken; whose kindred fate it was, to pass away unnoticed and nameless,
lost in the elements from which they sprung.
Upon
the history of the English language, darkness thickens as we tread back the
course of time. The subject of our inquiry becomes, at every step, more
difficult and less worthy. We have now a tract of English literature, both
extensive and luminous; and though many modern writers, and no few even of our
writers on grammar, are comparatively very deficient in style, it is safe to
affirm that the English language in general has never been written or spoken
with more propriety and elegance, than it is at the present day. Modern English
we read with facility; and that which was good two centuries ago, though
considerably antiquated, is still easily understood. The best way, therefore,
to gain a practical knowledge of the changes which our language has undergone,
is, to read some of our older authors in retrograde order, till the style
employed at times more and more remote, becomes in some degree familiar.
Pursued in this manner, the study will be less difficult, and the labour of the
curious inquirer, which may be suspended or resumed at pleasure, will be better
repaid, than if he proceed in the order of history, and attempt at first the
Saxon remains.
1.
Origin of English language
The
value of a language as an object of study, depends chiefly on the character of
the books which it contains; and, secondarily, on its connexion with
others more worthy to be thoroughly known. In this instance, there are several
circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage research. As our language
took its rise during the barbarism of the dark ages, the books through which
its early history must be traced, are not only few and meagre, but, in respect
to grammar, unsettled and diverse. It is not to be expected that inquiries of
this kind will ever engage the attention of any very considerable number of
persons. Over the minds of the reading public, the attractions of novelty hold
a much greater influence, than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk
of antiquity. All old books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words,
and antiquated modes of expression, which puzzle the reader, and call him too
frequently to his glossary. And even the most common terms, when they appear in
their ancient, unsettled orthography, are often so disguised as not to be
readily recognized.
1. These
circumstances (the last of which should be a caution to us against innovations
in spelling) retard the progress of the reader, impose a labour too great for
the ardour of his curiosity, and soon dispose him to rest satisfied with an
ignorance, which, being general, is not likely to expose him to censure. For
these reasons, ancient authors are little read; and the real antiquary is
considered a man of odd habits, who, by a singular propensity, is led into
studies both unfashionable and fruitless-- a man who ought to have been born in
the days of old, that he might have spoken the language he is so curious to
know, and have appeared in the costume of an age better suited to his taste.
2. But
Learning is ever curious to explore the records of time, as well as the
regions of space; and wherever her institutions flourish, she will amass her
treasures, and spread them before her votaries. Difference of languages she
easily overcomes; but the leaden reign of unlettered Ignorance defies her
scrutiny. Hence, of one period of the world's history, she ever speaks with
horror--that "long night of apostasy," during which, like a lone
Sibyl, she hid her precious relics in solitary cells, and fleeing from degraded
Christendom, sought refuge with the eastern caliphs. "This awful decline
of true religion in the world carried with it almost every vestige of civil
liberty, of classical literature, and of scientific knowledge; and it will
generally be found in experience that they must all stand or fall
together."--Hints on Toleration, p. 263. In the tenth century,
beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the English
language as now written, this mental darkness appears to have gathered to its
deepest obscuration; and, at that period, England was sunk as low in ignorance,
superstition, and depravity, as any other part of Europe.
3. The
English language gradually varies as we trace it back, and becomes at length
identified with the Anglo-Saxon; that is, with the dialect spoken by the Saxons
after their settlement in England. These Saxons were a fierce, warlike,
unlettered people from Germany; whom the ancient Britons had invited to their
assistance against the Picts and Scots. Cruel and ignorant, like their Gothic
kindred, who had but lately overrun the Roman empire, they came, not for the
good of others, but to accommodate themselves. They accordingly seized the
country; destroyed or enslaved the ancient inhabitants; or, more probably,
drove the remnant of them into the mountains of Wales. Of Welsh or ancient
British words, Charles Bucke, who says in his grammar that he took great pains
to be accurate in his scale of derivation, enumerates but one hundred and
eleven, as now found in our language; and Dr. Johnson, who makes them but ninety-five,
argues from their paucity, or almost total absence, that the Saxons could not
have mingled at all with these people, or even have retained them in vassalage.
4. The
ancient languages of France and of the British isles are said to have proceeded
from an other language yet more ancient, called the _Celtic_; so that, from one
common source, are supposed to have sprung the present Welsh, the present
Irish, and the present Highland Scotch.[46] The term Celtic Dr. Webster
defines, as a noun, "The language of the Celts;" and, as an
adjective, "Pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south and west
of Europe, or to the early inhabitants of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and
Britain." What unity, according to this, there was, or could have
been, in the ancient Celtic tongue, does not appear from books, nor is it easy
to be conjectured.[47] Many ancient writers sustain this broad application of
the term _Celtae_ or _Celts_; which, according to Strabo's etymology of it,
means horsemen, and seems to have been almost as general asour word Indians.
But Casar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed by the
people who, in his day, lived in France between the Seine and the Garonne, and
who by the Romans were called Galli, or Gauls.
5. The
Celtic tribes are said to have been the descendants of Gomer, the son of
Japhet. The English historians agree that the first inhabitants of their island
owed their origin and their language to the _Celta_, or Gauls, who settled on
the opposite shore. Julius Casar, who invaded Britain about half a century
before the Christian era, found the inhabitants ignorant of letters, and
destitute of any history but oral tradition. To this, however, they paid great
attention, teaching every thing in verse. Some of the Druids, it is said in
Casar's Commentaries, spent twenty years in learning to repeat songs and hymns
that were never committed to writing. These ancient priests, or diviners, are
represented as having great power, and as exercising it in some respects
beneficially; but their horrid rites, with human sacrifices, provoked the
Romans to destroy them.
Smollett
says, "Tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in Gaul; and Claudius
destroyed the Druids of that country; but they subsisted in Britain till the
reign of Nero, when Paulus Suetonius reduced the island of Anglesey, which was
the place of their retreat, and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and
sudden destruction, that all their knowledge and tradition, conveyed to them in
the songs of their predecessors, perished at once."--_Smollett's Hist. of
Eng._, 4to, B. i, Ch. i.
2.
History of English language
The
Romans considered Britain a province of their empire, for a period of about
five hundred years; but the northern part of the island was never entirely
subdued by them, and not till Anno Domini 78, a hundred and thirty-three years
after their first invasion of the country, had they completed their conquest of
England. Letters and arts, so far at least as these are necessary to the
purposes of war or government, the victors carried with them; and under their
auspices some knowledge of Christianity was, at a very early period, introduced
into Britain. But it seems strange, that after all that is related of their
conquests, settlements, cities, fortifications, buildings, seminaries,
churches, laws, &c., they should at last have left the Britons in so helpless,
degraded, and forlorn a condition. They did not sow among them the seeds of
any permanent improvement.
The
Roman government, being unable to sustain itself at home, withdrew its forces
finally from Britain in the year 446, leaving the wretched inhabitants almost
as savage as it found them, and in a situation even less desirable. Deprived of
their native resources, their ancient independence of spirit, as well as of the
laws, customs, institutions, and leaders, that had kept them together under
their old dynasties, and now deserted by their foreign protectors, they were
apparently left at the mercy of blind fortune, the wretched vicissitudes of
which there was none to foresee, none to resist. The glory of the Romans now
passed away. The mighty fabric of their own proud empire crumbled into ruins.
Civil liberty gave place to barbarism; Christian truth, to papal superstition;
and the lights of science were put out by both. The shades of night gathered
over all; settling and condensing, "till almost every point of that wide
horizon, over which the Sun of Righteousness had diffused his cheering rays,
was enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of
old descended upon rebellious Pharaoh and the callous sons of Ham."--Hints
on Toleration, p. 310.
The
Saxons entered Britain in the year 449. But what was the form of their language
at that time, cannot now be known. It was a dialect of the Gothic or
_Teutonic_; which is considered the parent of all the northern tongues of
Europe, except some few of Sclavonian origin. The only remaining monument of
the Gothic language is a copy of the Gospels, translated by Ulphilas; which is
preserved at Upsal, and called, from its embellishments, the Silver Book. This
old work has been three times printed in England. We possess not yet in America
all the advantages which may be enjoyed by literary men in the land of our
ancestors; but the stores of literature, both ancient and modern, are somewhat
more familiar to us, than is there supposed; and the art of printing is fast
equalizing, to all nations that cultivate learning, the privilege of drinking
at its ancient fountains.
It
is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the intellectual or the
moral condition of any remote age or country, merely from our own ignorance of
it. It is true, we can derive from no quarter a favourable opinion of the state
of England after the Saxon invasion, and during the tumultuous and bloody
government of the heptarchy. But I will not darken the picture through design.
If justice were done to the few names--to Gildas the wise, the memorialist of
his country's sufferings and censor of the nation's depravity, who appears a
solitary star in the night of the sixth century--to the venerable Bede, the
greatest theologian, best scholar, and only historian of the seventh--to
Alcuin, the abbot of Canterbury, the luminary of the eighth--to Alfred the
great, the glory of the ninth, great as a prince, and greater as a scholar,
seen in the evening twilight of an age in which the clergy could not read;--if
justice were done to all such, we might find something, even in these dark and
rugged times, if not to soften the grimness of the portrait, at least to give
greater distinctness of feature.
In
tracing the history of our language, Dr. Johnson, who does little more than
give examples, cites as his first specimen of ancient English, a portion of
king [sic--KTH] Alfred's paraphrase in imitation of Boethius. But this language
of Alfred's is not English; but rather, as the learned doctor himself
considered it, an example of the Anglo-Saxon in its highest state of purity.
This dialect was first changed by admixture with words derived from the Danish
and the Norman; and, still being comparatively rude and meagre, afterwards
received large accessions from the Latin, the French, the Greek, the
Dutch--till, by gradual changes, which the etymologist may exhibit, there was
at length produced a language bearing a sufficient resemblance to the present
English, to deserve to be called English at this day.
The
formation of our language cannot with propriety be dated earlier than the
thirteenth century. It was then that a free and voluntary amalgamation of its
chief constituent materials took place; and this was somewhat earlier than we
date the revival of learning. The English of the thirteenth century is scarcely
intelligible to the modern reader. Dr. Johnson calls it "a kind of
intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English;" and says, that Sir John
Gower, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century, was "the
first of our authors who can be properly said to have written English."
Contemporary with Gower, the father of English poetry, was the still greater
poet, his disciple Chaucer; who embraced many of the tenets of Wickliffe, and
imbibed something of the spirit of the reformation, which was now begun.
The
literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full of interest;
for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and obvious improvement.
The reformation of religion and the revival of learning were nearly
simultaneous. Yet individuals may have acted a conspicuous part in the latter,
who had little to do with the former; for great learning does not necessarily
imply great piety, though, as Dr. Johnson observes, "the Christian
religion always implies or produces a certain degree of civility and
learning."--_Hist. Eng. Lang. before his 4to Dict._ "The ordinary
instructions of the clergy, both philosophical and religious, gradually fell
into contempt, as the Classics superseded the one, and the Holy Scriptures
expelled the other. The first of these changes was effected by the early
grammarians of Europe; and it gave considerable aid to the reformation,
though it had no immediate connexion with that event. The revival of the English
Bible, however, completed the work: and though its appearance was late, and its
progress was retarded in every possible manner, yet its dispersion was at
length equally rapid, extensive, and effectual."--_Constable's
Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 75.
Peculiar
honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances human happiness.
And, surely, our just admiration of the character of the reformers must
be not a little enhanced, when we consider what they did for letters as well as
for the church. Learning does not consist in useless jargon, in a multitude of
mere words, or in acute speculations remote from practice; else the seventeen
folios of St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelical doctor of the thirteenth century,
and the profound disputations of his great rival, Duns Scotus the subtle, for
which they were revered in their own age, had not gained them the contempt of
all posterity. From such learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers
delivered the halls of instruction. The school divinity of the middle ages
passed away before the presence of that which these men learned from the Bible,
as did in a later age the Aristotelian philosophy before that which Bacon drew
from nature.
Towards
the latter part of the fourteenth century, Wickliffe furnished the first entire
translation of the
Bible
into English. In like manner did the Germans, a hundred and fifty years after,
receive it in their tongue from the hands of Luther; who says, that at twenty
years of age, he himself had not seen it in any language. Wickliffe's English
style is elegant for the age in which he lived, yet very different from what is
elegant now. This first English translation of the Bible, being made about a
hundred years before the introduction of printing into England, could not have
been very extensively circulated. A large specimen of it may be seen in Dr.
Johnson's History of the English Language. Wickliffe died in 1384. The art of
printing was invented about 1440, and first introduced into England, in 1468;
but the first printed edition of the Bible in English, was executed in Germany.
It was completed, October 5th, 1535.
"Martin
Luther, about the year 1517, first introduced metrical psalmody into the
service of the church, which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of the
reformers, but formed a rallying point for his followers. This practice spread
in all directions; and it was not long ere six thousand persons were heard
singing together at St. Paul's Cross in London. Luther was a poet and musician;
but the same talent existed not in his followers. Thirty years afterwards,
Sternhold versified fifty-one of the Psalms; and in 1562, with the help of
Hopkins, he completed the Psalter. These poetical effusions were chiefly sung
to German melodies, which the good taste of Luther supplied: but the Puritans,
in a subsequent age, nearly destroyed these germs of melody, assigning as a
reason, that music should be so simplified as to suit all persons, and that all
may join."-_Dr. Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 283.
"The
schools and colleges of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were
not governed by a system of education which would render their students very
eminent either as scholars or as gentlemen: and the monasteries, which were
used as seminaries, even until the reformation, taught only the corrupt Latin
used by the ecclesiastics. The time however was approaching, when the united
efforts of Stanbridge, Linacre, Sir John Cheke, Dean Colet, Erasmus, William
Lily, Roger Ascham, &c., were successful in reviving the Latin tongue in
all its purity; and even in exciting a taste for Greek in a nation the clergy
of which opposed its introduction with the same vehemence which characterized
their enmity to a reformation in religion. The very learned Erasmus, the first
who undertook the teaching of the Greek language at Oxford, met with few
friends to support him; notwithstanding Oxford was the seat of nearly all the
learning in England."-Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 146.
"The
priests preached against it, as a very recent invention of the arch-enemy; and
confounding in their misguided zeal, the very foundation of their faith, with
the object of their resentment, they represented the New Testament itself as
'an impious and dangerous book,' because it was written in that heretical
language. Even after the accession of Henry VIII, when Erasmus, who had quitted
Oxford in disgust, returned under his especial patronage, with the support of
several eminent scholars and powerful persons, his progress was still impeded,
and the language opposed. The University was divided into parties, called
Greeks and Trojans, the latter being the strongest, from being favoured by the
monks; and the Greeks were driven from the streets, with hisses and other
expressions of contempt. It was not therefore until Henry VIII and Cardinal
Wolsey gave it their positive and powerful protection, that this persecuted
language was allowed to be quietly studied, even in the institutions dedicated
to learning."-Ib., p. 147.
These
curious extracts are adduced to show the spirit of the times, and the
obstacles then to be surmounted in the cause of learning. This popular
opposition to Greek, did not spring from a patriotic design to prefer and
encourage English literature; for the improvement of this was still later, and
the great promoters of it were all of them classical scholars. They wrote in
English, not because they preferred it, but because none but those who were
bred in colleges, could read any thing else; and, even to this very day, the
grammatical study of the English language is shamefully neglected in what are
called the higher institutions of learning. In alleging this neglect, I speak
comparatively. Every student, on entering upon the practical business of life,
will find it of far more importance to him, to be skillful in the language of
his own country than to be distinguished for any knowledge which the learned
only can appreciate. "Will the greatest Mastership in Greek and Latin, or
[the] translating [of] these Languages into English, avail for the Purpose of
acquiring an elegant English Style?
No
- we know just the Reverse from woeful Experience! And, as Mr. Locke and the
Spectator observe, Men who have threshed hard at Greek and Latin for ten or
eleven years together, are very often deficient in their own Language." - Preface
to the British Gram, 8vo, 1784, p. xxi.
That
the progress of English literature in early times was slow, will not seem wonderful
to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress of other arts, more
immediately connected with the comforts of life. "Down to the reign of
Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns, had no
chimneys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke found its way
out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. The houses were
mostly built of wattling, plastered over with clay; and the beds were only
straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king
fared no better than his subjects; for, in Henry the Eighth's time, we find
directions, 'to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no
daggers might be concealed therein.' A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress
of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were 'marvellously altered
for the worse in England;' the multitude of chimneys lately erected, the
increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treen platters into pewter, and
wooden spoons into silver and tin; and he complains bitterly that oak instead
of willow was employed in the building of houses."--REV. ROYAL ROBBINS: Outlines
of History, p. 377.
Shakspeare
appeared in the reign of Elizabeth; outlived her thirteen years; and died in
1616 aged 52. The English language in his hands did not lack power or compass
of expression. His writings are now more extensively read, than any others of
that age; nor has any very considerable part of his phraseology yet become
obsolete. But it ought to be known, that the printers or editors of the
editions which are now read, have taken extensive liberty in modernizing his
orthography, as well as that of other old authors still popular. How far such
liberty is justifiable, it is difficult to say. Modern readers doubtless find a
convenience in it. It is very desirable that the orthography of our language
should be made uniform, and remain permanent. Great alterations cannot be
suddenly introduced; and there is, in stability, an advantage which will
counterbalance that of a slow approximation to regularity. Analogy may
sometimes decide the form of variable words, but the concurrent usage of the
learned must ever be respected, in this, as in every other part of grammar.
Among
the earliest of the English grammarians, was Ben Jonson, the poet; who died in
the year 1637, at the age of sixty-three. His grammar, (which Horne Tooke
mistakingly calls "the first as well as the best English
grammar,") is still extant, being published in the several editions of his
works. It is a small treatise, and worthy of attention only as a matter of
curiosity. It is written in prose, and designed chiefly for the aid of
foreigners. Grammar is an unpoetical subject, and therefore not wisely treated,
as it once very generally was, in verse. But every poet should be familiar with
the art, because the formal principles of his own have always been considered
as embraced in it. To its poets, too, every language must needs be particularly
indebted; because their compositions, being in general more highly finished
than works in prose, are supposed to present the language in its most agreeable
form. In the preface to the Poems of Edmund Waller, published in 1690, the
editor ventures to say, "He was, indeed, the Parent of English Verse, and
the first that shewed us our Tongue had Beauty and Numbers in it. Our Language
owes more to Him, than the French does to Cardinal Richelieu and the whole
Academy. * * * * The Tongue came into His hands a rough diamond: he polished it
first; and to that degree, that all artists since him have admired the
workmanship, without pretending to mend it."--British Poets, Vol.
ii, Lond., 1800: Waller's Poems, p. 4.
Dr.
Johnson, however, in his Lives of the Poets, abates this praise, that he may
transfer the greater part of it to Dryden and Pope. He admits that, "After
about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre, some advances towards
nature and harmony had been already made by Waller and Denham;" but, in
distributing the praise of this improvement, he adds, "It may be doubted
whether Waller and Denham could have over-born [overborne] the prejudices which
had long prevailed, and which even then were sheltered by the protection of
Cowley. The new versification, as it was called, may be considered as owing its
establishment to Dryden; from whose time it is apparent that English poetry has
had no tendency to relapse to its former savageness."--Johnson's Life of
Dryden: Lives, p. 206. To Pope, as the translator of Homer, he gives this
praise: "His version may be said to have tuned the English tongue; for
since its appearance no writer, however deficient in other powers, has wanted
melody."--Life of Pope: Lives, p. 567. Such was the opinion of Johnson;
but there are other critics who object to the versification of Pope, that it is
"monotonous and cloying." See, in Leigh Hunt's Feast of the Poets,
the following couplet, and a note upon it:
"But
ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town With his cuckoo-song verses half
up and half down."
The
unfortunate Charles I, as well as his father James I, was a lover and promoter
of letters. He was himself a good scholar, and wrote well in English, for his
time: he ascended the throne in 1625, and was beheaded in 1648. Nor was
Cromwell himself, with all his religious and military enthusiasm, wholly insensible
to literary merit. This century was distinguished by the writings of
Milton, Dryden, Waller,Cowley, Denham, Locke, and others; and the reign of
Charles II, which is embraced in it, has been considered by some "the
Augustan age of English literature." But that honour, if it may well be
bestowed on any, belongs rather to a later period. The best works produced in
the eighteenth century, are so generally known and so highly esteemed, that it
would be lavish of the narrow space allowed to this introduction, to speak
particularly of their merits. Some grammatical errors may be found in almost
all books; but our language was, in general, written with great purity and
propriety by Addison, Swift, Pope, Johnson, Lowth, Hume, Horne, and many other
celebrated authors who flourished in the last century. Nor was it much before
this period, that the British writers took any great pains to be accurate in
the use of their own language;
"Late,
very late, correctness grew our care, When the tir'd nation breath'd from civil
war."--Pope.
Conclusion
English
books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth century; and, as
soon as a taste for reading was formed, the press threw open the flood-gates of
general knowledge, the streams of which are now pouring forth, in a copious,
increasing, but too often turbid tide, upon all the civilized nations of the
earth.
This
mighty engine afforded a means by which superior minds could act more
efficiently and more extensively upon society in general. And thus, by the
exertions of genius adorned with learning, our native tongue has been made the
polished vehicle of the most interesting truths, and of the most important discoveries;
and has become a language copious, strong, refined, and capable of no
inconsiderable degree of harmony. Nay, it is esteemed by some who claim to be
competent judges, to be the strongest, the richest, the most elegant, and the
most susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world.
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