Курсовая работа: Drug trafficking - a global challenge of the XXI century
Курсовая работа: Drug trafficking - a global challenge of the XXI century
Наркобизнес -
глобальная проблема XXI в.
Content
Introduction. 3
Drugs situation in the world; scales, major factors and
tendencies of development of drugs business. 4
The drugs business characteristic: criminal groups, kinds
of drugs, stages of manufacture and distribution, sale territory. 17
The characteristic of the markets of principal views of
drugs. 20
Interrelation of drugs business with other global
problems of mankind. 26
Conclusion. 30
Bibliography. 32
Introduction
The mankind has stepped in the XXI-st century, continuing
to search for effective ways of the decision of one of the major global world
problems - a drug trafficking. This problem costs practically before all
states. Here there are no territorial, national, religious, class, sexual or
other borders.
The narcoindustry with a turn corresponding approximately
of 8 % of world trade is steadily improved, raising technical, financial
potential, adapting advanced achievements of scientific and technical progress
for the requirements. Therefore it is no wonder that transnational
narcosyndicates use in the criminal activity the advanced means of arms and an
ammunition, systems of electronic equipment, the newest methods of maintenance
of own safety.
World narcobusiness, being the most profitable (for
example, in the Netherlands the cost price of one tablet " ecstasy"
makes 7-9 cents, and its retail price already $ 8-15) has also the most
powerful and branched out mafia structure. Narcobusiness is initially doomed to
internationalism, globalisation. Bought primary raw materials in Third World
countries, the drug mafia should organise not only its processing in an
end-product, but also goods delivery to the consumers which most part lives in
the developed countries.
Has passed time when the narcoproblem mentioned the only
separately taken countries. The narcotism wide circulation causes concern not
only in those governments or other states and the international organisations.
The United Nations Organization, in particular, functioning in its structure
Management on struggle against drugs and criminality preventive maintenance
(based in Vienna), International Crime society, the International association
of criminal law, the Interpol is engaged in drug trafficking studying, etc.
Drugs situation in the world;
scales, major factors and tendencies of development of drugs business
The world has stepped in the XXI-st century. The rough
processes of the globalisation which has captured various areas of human
ability to live, as a whole have positive character and give to mankind
unprecedented possibilities. But, unfortunately, occurring changes have also a
shady side, allowing such troubles of the modern world as the organised crime,
the international terrorism, drug business to get transnational character, to
turn in «problems without passports».
Spread of drug addiction worldwide has set of aspects:
political, economic, social, legal, medical, moral. Drugs – social illness of a
modern society, and its exact diagnosis, understanding of all complexity of the
given phenomenon and difficulties of struggle with it is necessary for
treatment of this illness.
Leitmotif of performances of many heads of the states and
the governments at special session of General Assembly of the United Nations in
the June, 2008, the devoted struggle against spread of drug addiction, the deep
alarm sounded because spread of drug addiction on globe occurs accruing rates
and turns to global threat, comparable from the ecological. In especially
difficult situation there are many countries with transitive economy[1].
Drug business transnationalization, its offensive
strategy on a threshold of second millennium are in many respects connected by
that to the traditional reasons generating it malicious (poverty, the political
hopelessness, social disorder, alienation of millions people), were in the
nineties added the new factors accompanying globalisation financial, bank,
trading, technological, information and other areas of human activity. These
factors, on the one hand, are reflected in a way of life of the person, and
with another – open new possibilities for businessmen of drug business. And
these new possibilities are reflected as in structure and ways of manufacture
drugs, and on ways of delivery, trade, consumption.
By approximate calculations, for today worldwide over 200
million persons are on drugs a various kind. Including about 140 million people
smoke marihuana - the most widespread drug, cocaine use 13 million people, and
heroin - 8 million, 30 million people’s abuse stimulators amphetamine.
The quantity of consumers of drugs increases every year
and basically at the expense of defeat by drugs of the most vulnerable part of
the population - youth. In some countries the number of schoolboys and full age
young men which, by own recognition, tried to consume marihuana, makes 37 %.
Along with it the tendency of expansion of activity of
the international criminal groupings was outlined. Thanks to the international
character and a market basis drug business faster, than legal business, reacts
to these changes, using globalisation for expansion of a drug network and
expansion in all directions.
In an active of drug businessmen all advantages of shadow
economy – tax free, absence of control, concentration of huge capitals, network
international structure of the organisation of corporate type which covers the
basic links of the drug industry and connects in a uniform global network of
all participants of a drug trafficking – making, consuming and providing
transit of drug cargoes of the country. And the specific goods – a drug thanks
to an interdiction have the highest prices defined not by production costs, and
demand in the drug market of the consumer dependent on it and from distance
from it to a point of production[2].
The drug industry is enough steady because of a stable
demand and brings considerable profits in connection with absence some a
serious competition between the organisations which are engaged in this kind of
criminal business. The turn of the world drug industry is estimated by experts
of the United Nations approximately in 400 billion dollars a year that makes
about 8 % of a turn of all international trade. The report of the United
Nations on position with drugs in the world of 1997 notices that the world turn
of drug business in separate years exceeds a turn of the world market of cars
or the world market of ferrous metals. One only the Colombian cartels presented
more than 500 companies, in the late nineties of the XX-th century took from
drug traffic in the USA of 20 billion dollars of annual profit. For comparison
we will notice that totally national budgets of Colombia, Bolivia and Peru made
at that point in time only about 9 billion American dollars annually.
Operations with drugs bring from 300 to 2000 % have
arrived that does their attractive and for the transnational criminal organisations,
and for separate groups of criminals, whose purpose is reception of the maximum
profit in short terms[3].
Thus the drug industry is steadily improved, raising technical, financial
potential, adapting advanced achievements of scientific and technical progress
for the requirements.
Transnational drug syndicates in criminal activity use
the advanced means of arms and an ammunition, systems of electronic equipment,
the newest methods of maintenance of own safety. A part of the profit received
from drug traffic, drug businessmen direct on acquisition of equipment of
communication, cryptographic devices, and radio with use of high-speed
measurement of frequency, receivers for revealing of radar. By estimations of
experts, drug business annually puts about 125 million dollars in purchase new
«technicians of alarm investigation». Drug cartels have perfectly armed
security forces in which order there is the advanced weapon, up to the portable
is rocket-surface-to-air missile systems. And on September, 8th, 2000 on world
information channels has passed the message on detection in Colombia in working
suburb Fakatativa (18 km from Bogota) shipyards with almost collected
тридцатиметровой a submarine on which drug businessmen were going to take out
the production. Drug business development is closely connected with traffic in
arms development. Annually from drug criminals from all regions of the world it
is withdrawn about 100 thousand units of fire-arms; comes to light over 500
secret runways and platforms, about the same quantity of the flying machines
used by drug syndicates, gets off during flight or it will be confiscated.
Despite it, it is daily carried out about 300 starts with illegal cargo of
drugs.
Transnational scope of criminal activity allows criminals
to use channels fast and concerning reliable audio- and video contact.
So, the greatest distribution is received by cases of use
of global information network Internet for the conclusion of contactless
transactions. As reported by Reuters, drug dealers and their clients even more
often conclude transactions in «private-room» (the closed rooms) the
chats-channels protected from an extraneous sight by hardware-software means.
To trace similar transactions it is almost impossible. Internet-drugstores give
out psychoactive preparations without the recipe. And, at last, the Dutch and
Canadian companies through Internet trade worldwide in cannabis seeds, grassy
ecstasy, and ephedrine.
Use of the powerful computer techniques connected to the
international bank electronic network, promotes distribution internationally
process of legalisation of criminal incomes. Even more often drug dealers
«launder money» through Internet-banks.
As the international market of drugs covers all regions
of the world and almost each nation, the money-laundering, received as a result
of drug traffic, also has got transnational character. Only within the Russian
Federation "is washed" from 2 to 7 billion dollars of money from
drugs, these means then actually free move abroad. Under the statement of
officials of Singapore, with 1999 on 2002 drug dealers it is spent through
Singapore about 100 million dollars which went through underground bank to
Bahrain and further into accounts of the World Bank. In 1996 in Singapore arrest has been put means of the organisations of drug dealers in the sum
equivalent to 20 million of US dollars. The money-laundering estimation in Australia
makes about 3,5 billion dollars annually. Here, for example, the network on
washing up more than 20 million dollars of the receipt of heroin in New York
has been opened and is confiscated more than 40 million dollars from funds of
the criminal syndicate trading in cannabis in Australia, but being in Hong Kong[4].
In this light there is real an estimation according to
which annually in the world will be legalised the incomes received as a result
of drug business, at a rate of 300-800 bln. dollars of the USA (are washed)[5].
If it was possible to block the basic channels of washing
up of drugs-dollars drug business to no small degree would lose the appeal.
Fabulous incomes of a drug turn, estimated in billions dollars, it is
impossible to store «in a stocking». However to block channels it is not
possible, for there is a set of methods of washing up of drugs-dollars, and too
powerful forces make profit of these operations.
The drug trafficking actively stimulates also corruption
with which help drugs cartels and other criminal groups involved in process of drugs
business, aspire to secure the business and to duck out. The profit part is
spent for payoff and reception of the necessary information. Gathering of data
on the corrupted officials in law enforcement bodies and authorities, the data
about market condition, about the prices for drugs is conducted. For example,
one of not the largest Mexican cartels – Tidzhuansky – spends weekly 1 million
dollars for bribes to the Mexican judges, public prosecutors, police, army, and
customs. The general public prosecutor of Mexico recognised that 90 % of judges
and public prosecutors in Tidzhuane "are bought" by cartel.
One of the major universal tendencies in drugs business
development also is its industrialisation. Illegal manufacture of narcotics
gets character of well adjusted industry. Depending on technological complexity
of the organisation of illegal manufactures underground drugs laboratories it
is possible conditionally are subdivided on handicraft which, as a rule,
possess low productivity and manufacture in which is carried out without
difficult chemical reactions, and industrial, different by high efficiency and
used for manufacture of synthetic drugs by means of difficult chemical
synthesis.
Concerning the countries widely making narcotics, strict
economic sanctions are entered. However the quantity of drugs laboratories in
territories is reduced very slowly.
Last years of XX centuries the tendency to concentration
of manufacture of narcotics, integration of capacities on manufacture of drugs
was observed. The numerous facts of detection of laboratories-giants testify to
it on cocaine manufacture. So, it agree to the data published by antinarcotics’
police of Colombia, in 1996 in the Central Colombia was the underground
laboratory-complex protected by a large armed formation is found out and
destroyed. It had several runways, has been equipped by modern system of the
notification and differed high level of the organisation of production. Annual
maximum productivity of this laboratory could make approximately 350 т cocaine.
Mobility of manufacturers of drugs increases. The facts
of manufacture of drugs in the mobile laboratories which are settling down in
vans and by trucks are elicited. Similar laboratories seldom enough come into
the view of law enforcement bodies and, continuously making drugs in a way, to
destination deliver already ready product. Capacity of one of such laboratories
revealed in territory of Colombia, made 70 kg of cocaine a day.
Manufacture process синтетиков has no rigid binding to
raw materials sources, places of their transportation and sale. Thereof turn
decentralisation synthetic is observed. Besides, the number of intermediate
links in a chain «the manufacturer – the consumer» is considerably reduced that
reduces a risk level and costs. Synthetic drugs are much more difficult for
finding out at all stages of their illegal circulation including stages of
creation, transportation and trade.
Last years there are new kinds of synthetic drugs. In
their manufacture last scientific achievements are used. Considerable financial
resources are invested in financing of independent researches for the purpose
of search of new drugs and more perfect technologies of their manufacturing.
Handicraft and unproductive manufactories are superseded by hi-tech compact
laboratories and the large industrial drug enterprises which are served by the
qualified experts.
The international scale of a drug trafficking and
involving of the increasing quantity of the states in a world network of routes
of their illegal transportation have actually destroyed division of the
countries of the world existing by decades on "consuming" (the
developed capitalist countries) and "making", mainly developing
countries.
In the nineties the twentieth century drug business has
had development even in those countries where earlier the drug trafficking and
abusing were not marked earlier by them at all. Experts of the United Nations
connect the reasons of development of the transnational criminal organisations
including what primary activity is drugs business, with the advent of
corresponding possibilities at global level that is caused by long-term
tendencies of development in world politics and economy. As a result of
increase in interdependence of the states, simplification of the international
trips and communications, increases of degree of a transparency of national
borders and formation of global financial networks have appeared the world
markets of sale both lawful, and illegal production. It is possible to consider
development and scope of activity of the organised drugs criminality
substantially as reflexion of the possibilities which have appeared as a result
of reorganisation of the international relations, and the changes which have
occurred in the states. Thus, transnational drugs business can be both the
reason, and a consequence of the important changes in the global policy and
economy.
It is possible to carry the following to number of
principal causes and factors of development of drugs business[6]:
- Weakness of the governments, inability of the state to
carry out an effective control over territory being under their jurisdiction
(for example, in Bolivia, Colombia, Peru).
- Carrying out by the state of a policy of connivance in
relation to drugs business or politicians of "silent reconciliation» in
connection with the income brought by it to a society, or from fear of
counter-measures from outside criminals. For example, in Pakistan to the power
almost did not interfere with opium manufacture, its transportation, actually
indulging drugs businessmen.
- The powerful factor of development of drugs business is
political and economic instability. It is connected with use of considerable
financial resources from manufacture and sale of drugs for achievement of
political ends. Acknowledgement to it are cases when the finance received from
contraband of drugs, goes on purchase of the weapon for развязывания and
maintenance of international conflicts. Interrelations of the organised crime
with terrorist and extremist groupings thus extend.
- Easing and dysfunctions of social institutes,
excessively high rates of social and economic and political transformations in
connection with transition of the post socialist countries to market system of
managing. Absence or imperfection of the legislation or the control of its
execution in a combination to a sharp aggravation of social and economic
problems is in these conditions the favorable environment for drugs business
development. In similar cases the most active people are actively involved in drugs
business with the limited financial and economic resources.
- Corruption of the governments which members get huge
profit on illegal activity and consequently do not undertake any measures for
its reduction or restraint. Distinction between corrupted and entered
arrangement to criminals the government consists only in degree of direct
participation of its members in drugs business. In a number of the countries,
using the corrupted politicians, accomplices in law enforcement bodies, armies,
customs, the drug mafia has achieved unlimited influence. In particular, in
Bolivia in 80th so-called «drugs cratia» represented, possibly, vivid example
of a direct communication of the government with the criminal organisation
which was engaged in drug traffic. Experts assert that it was impossible to
draw a distinction between the military Bolivian government and suppliers of
drugs. At the same time the state sovereignty in which territory there are
similar criminal formations, provides with it reliable protection against
attempts of other countries to stop illegal activity, to liquidate the central
links and branches of criminal structures.
- Increasing demand for the illegal goods. So, occurrence
in the early eighties the Colombian organisations on cocaine contraband partly
speaks ultrahigh norm of profitableness of drugs business, ease of overcoming
of boundary barriers to import in the USA.
- Inequality preservation between industrially developed
and developing states, unprofitable position in which the last are put in
international trade system, interfere with their normal economic progress and
realisation of the possibilities given by lawful commercial activity. The
choice of illegal ways of business becomes attractive alternative to poverty.
In particular, weakness and instability of the markets of agricultural
production (to Bolivias, Peru and a number of other countries) were made культивирование
by cooks and opium rather favourable employment for local peasants.
Liberalisation of the foreign trade activity.
- The economic crises stimulating search of improvement
of a financial position by participation in illegal business. Businessmen use
there the saved up knowledge and experience of traditional manufactures. In the
conditions of crisis participation in drugs business allows to soften
temporarily a problem of employment of a considerable part of the population.
In these conditions activity of illegal formations starts to be perceived
positively. For example, occurrence of the Colombian cartel as one of the main
cocaine centers is caused by reduction of its role as large manufacturer of the
textile goods. Drug dealers have provided alternative employment of a labour,
having won thereby liking of local population. Similar loyalty has essential
value as complicates work of services of counterespionage for criminals and
counteracts productivity of operations of law enforcement bodies.
Besides, researchers name the following events which have
caused changes in the organisation and activity of the industry of manufacture
of drugs, and also manufacture rapid growth last two decades of the XX-th
century:
- The sharp increase in demand at cocaine in the USA in
80th years, it has led to activization of efforts of the Colombian
manufacturers of the drugs directed on eliminating the basic competitors, to
expand capacities on raw materials processing, to improve routes of delivery of
drugs and to neutralise measures of the Colombian authorities on execution of
the laws, concerning illegal drugs business;
- Intrusion of the Soviet armies into Afghanistan into
1979 and the long conflict which has followed it promoting growth of
manufacture of opium which in turn, provided a source of means for conducting
war against the USSR. There is a version about working out of CIA of the
special program code-named «White jihad» during the Soviet-Afghani conflict
which essence consisted in use of Afghanistan as base for manufacturing of
opium-raw and its transfer in republics USSR. Besides, the military conflict
has allowed drug dealers, having got of support of Mojaheds of Iran and
Pakistan, to use these countries as transit routes;
- Islamic revolution in Iran when the help of the Iranian
government to fundamentalists in Doline Bekaa has undermined antidrug
operations in Lebanon and in region as a whole and has allowed Iran to become
the important element in system of distribution of heroin;
- Realisation of rigid antidrug measures in Colombia and
Mexico has in the mid-eighties led to changes in geography of manufacture and
sale of drugs, manufacture has extended to Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Surinam,
Haiti and Paraguay became the important reloading points;
- Crash in 1988 of a mode Ne Fault in Myanma (Burma).
Myanma already was for a long time the large manufacturer of opium, but the
government Not Fault periodically carried out retaliatory operations against
manufacturers and dealers opium. In the conditions of the political instability
which has arisen after falling of the government Not Fault, intensity of
struggle against drugs business grew weak, and as a result to the beginning of
90th years Myanma has turned to the world's largest manufacturer of opium; - A combination
of intensive measures in Colombia, followed after murder of the candidate in
Carlos Galany's presidents in August, 1989, and intervention of the USA to
Panama in December, 1989 have led to certain shifts in the drugs industry of
Latin America: Panama has ceased to exist as the large centre of drug-dealing,
cocaine manufacture in Colombia was reduced and its manufacture in Peru has
increased, operations with drugs in Argentina, Chile and other countries of the
South America have extended; there was a relative easing of Medical Elinsky drugs
cartel and strengthening of its competitor – cartel of Cali;
- Obvious saturation of the market of cocaine in the USA
in the early nineties, a consequence of that became aspiration of drugs businessmen
to a diversification of "product" and the markets. Latin American
drug pusher began to be engaged in development and expansion of the markets in
Europe, Japan and on Middle East. Cartel of Cali, for example, the beginnings
рекрутировать couriers in Poland for an illicit crossing of cocaine through the
Polsko-German border; law enforcement bodies of Czechia and Poland have found
out the underground network of the organisations covering Poland, Czechia and
the Netherlands, the Czech-Colombian company on import of agrarian production
was the centre of this network;
- Incessant experiments on creation of new psychotropic
substances, such as "snow". These drugs can be made in any place in
the presence of corresponding chemical substances;
- Drug traffic internationalisation. So, some countries
are not manufacturers of drugs and do not face sharply problems of abusing
them, but appear deeply involved in process of drug-dealing owing to the
geographical position. For example, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan have got great
value in drug-dealing in Central Asia, Gyana and Trinidad and Tobago became the
important reloading points at movement of drugs from Colombia in the USA, and
Nigeria – for a stream of heroin from Southeast and Southwest Asia.
Prompt growth and the international expansion of the drugs
business, entangling the networks all new and new countries, were the major,
but not defining factor of evolution of a drugs situation in the modern world.
The increasing value gets active counteraction to this harm at the international
and national level which is carried out on the basis of numerous programs,
such, as the United Nations Program under the international control over drugs,
the European plan of action on struggle against drugs (1995 – 1999), the sub
regional Program under the control over drugs in South East Asia, the
Interamerican drugs strategy, anti-drug and a policy the certifications spent
by the USA and many other things. An important role softening with the period
termination «cold war» political contradictions has played, and cooperation of
the states in sphere of struggle against drugs business became practically more
realizable action. For example, still impracticable cooperation programs in
which would participate simultaneously Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Palestinian
autonomy (meanwhile such program is entered in February, 1999) or cooperation
of India and Pakistan in questions of struggle against a drug trafficking (this
cooperation under the aegis of Management on struggle against drugs and
preventive maintenance of criminality of the United Nations has begun in the
late nineties) recently seemed.
In 1998 General Assembly of the United Nations special
session on problems of drugs on which there were objects in view – twice to
reduce consumption of drugs has been spent and it is essential to reduce their
illegal manufacture by 2008. At that time these purposes could seem
unattainable, but experience of last two years testifies that search of ways of
an effective control over drugs business all the same yields positive results[7].
The report on position with drugs in the world for 2000 –
work of Management of the United Nations based in Vienna on struggle against
drugs and criminality preventive maintenance – marks the most essential
progress in the tendency to curtailment of production of two main problem
narcotic substances in the world - cocaine and heroin.
As the report affirms that thanks to the serious approach
from outside the majority of the countries which are the basic manufacturers’
cooks and опийного of a poppy, these plants are cultivated now in smaller, than
ever, number of the countries. Pino Alarchi, chief executive УБНПП, has mentioned
the following facts speaking about positive changes, occurred at the front
struggle against drugs business[8]:
• In 2000 in Pakistan manufacture opium a poppy has
actually stopped, besides, after performance of the fifteen-year program all
production is destroyed.
• In Bolivia for three years according to «the Basic
plan», installed in 1997, the areas were reduced to 78 % illegal cultivation
cooks.
• Manufacture cooks in the Peru which has sharply
increased in 1980th years, since 1992 as promptly decreases with 50 percent
reduction of deliveries of cocaine on the world market.
• For 18 months which have followed the agreement,
reached between UBNPP and the President of Laos, cultivation opium in Laos
which is one of three basic world manufacturers, it has been reduced to 30 %.
• In 1990th years cultivation opium a poppy in Vietnam it
was reduced to 90 %.
• Manufacture opium a poppy in Thailand has decreased
under a rigid management of the king of the country supported by local social
institutes and the international community, in particular, by the Program of
the United Nations under the international control over drugs and Management on
struggle against drugs and preventive maintenance of criminality
• the Areas occupied with crops opium of a poppy have
reached the lowest level since 1988, i.e. in 2009 crops опийного a poppy occupied
the areas, on 17 % smaller, than in 2000. The areas on which it is cultivated
the cook, too have reached the lowest level since 1987, and in 2009 cooks
occupied crops on 14 % of less areas under crops, than in 2000.
• the share of illegal drugs manufacture in economy of
the basic countries-manufacturers of drugs Has decreased. Even in those
countries where the level of production of narcotic substances all the same has
high indicators, the share of manufacture of drugs in gross national product
falls – in Colombia it has fallen to 2,5 % after has risen on 7 % from the
middle of 1980th years.
• By the end of last decade consumption of drugs in the
developed countries was stabilised or has decreased; in comparison with the
last decade cocaine consumption in the North America has fallen, abusing heroin
in the Western Europe was stabilised.
«Has come to change time our sight at drugs, - the chief
executive of UBNPP Pino Arlachi speaks. - the World community should refuse the
psychology of the despair which has captured minds of generation, and to
believe that nothing can return us back and the more so will force us to stop
nothing on the reached. We should concentrate on the pragmatically, integrated,
long-term approach to reduction in demand and offers concerning illegal drugs.
Joint efforts we can really reach within eight years of two purposes –
essential reduction of demand for drugs and destructions of manufacture cooks
and opium a poppy»[9].
Thus, despite all extending expansion of drugs business,
long-term experience of many countries of the world on search of ways of an
effective control over it already now allows to see positive results. And,
probably, in the long term the international community can fix the first
successes in struggle against a drug trafficking and deepen the positive
tendencies traced on a boundary of centuries.
The drugs business
characteristic: criminal groups, kinds of drugs, stages of manufacture and
distribution, sale territory
Illegal activity on manufacture and spread of drug
addiction is now one of the most widespread sources of incomes of the
transnational criminal organisations. And the drugs business industry has
defined substantially dynamics and the general prospects of development of the
transnational organised crime in the end of the XX-th century.
The virtual (actual) corporation which is so persistently
propagandised by theorists of management as leading competitive enterprise
structure of XXI century, has already found the real embodiment: 1) drugs
businessmen develop the general network structure of the independent companies;
2) they communicate, professional skills, price control methods; 3) open access
on the markets each other; 4) unite the potentials in attempts of creation and
use of the new markets in various regions of the world.
Among experts there are disputes on drugs cartels concern
what type of the organisation. Experts of Management in struggle against drugs
of the USA define cartel as «the big corporation having a number of
vice-presidents». Each of them heads any branch or "the consortium"
which members work together when it is them arranges. When necessity
disappears, they operate at own risk. The American magazine "Time"
considers cartel «confederation of criminal families», and the Colombian
magazine "Semana" characterises it as «federation of numerous
independent groups which conclude from time to time the strategic unions».
Experts of an English weekly journal "Economist" reject these
definitions, declaring that the term "cartel" simplifies
organizational structure of the corporations which are engaged in the drugs traffic
that quite often conducts to errors in struggle against them. The Chilean
experts giving a great attention to the given problem underline transnational
character of drugs business: «the Drugs traffic is not one more kind of illegal
activity, which great variety. This huge and difficult transnational enterprise
which generated the new phenomenon in the modern world, namely so-called drugs
economy»[10].
Many analysts consider that the international
narcooperations left far for frameworks of purely "economic
activities". One of researchers of this problem, James Millz,
characterises drugs business as follows:« The international industry of drugs
is actually at all and not the industry, it is empire. Sovereign,
self-satisfied and haughty it is underground empire though and often torn apart
by internal struggle, always addressed to the world community the rallied
front. Today it showed herself to the world so immensely money-grubbing and
ruthlessly exploiter, as well as any imperial state of a XIX-th century, so
extensive, as well as British Empire, so capable to resolute rallying, as well
as the American republic. Aggressive and violent by the nature the underground
empire has own armies, diplomats and reconnaissance services, banks, merchant
marine fleets and airlines. She aspires to expansion of the domination by all
ways – from illegal subversive activities before open war ».
At all variety of cartels in them the fear cast-iron
discipline, because punishment one – death reigns. Survivability of the
transnational criminal organisations also is to no small degree connected by
that, performing the operations, they completely ignore borders of the states,
the national sovereignty while the international and national forces combating
them, are obliged to operate by the strict rules established by these
attributes of statehood.
The transnational organisations which are engaged in
drugs business, have certain commodity markets not only in the territorial
relation, but also are frequent by "production" kinds (heroin,
cocaine, marihuana, etc.) Besides, they can be substantially differentiated
functionally, on production phases and spreads of drug addiction.
Parts of transnational organisations are focused on
multistage process: from manufacture before realisation of any one drug (for
example, heroin). The control over all chain in the drugs business industry:
from cultivation drug contents plants and manufacture of natural or synthetic
drugs before their sale and gain legalisation – allows such organisations to
weaken actions of law enforcement bodies on drug trafficking suppression and
repeatedly to raise profit on a difference of the prices between wholesale and
retail. A vivid example such ТПО are the Colombian drugs cartels which, as a
matter of fact, represent industrial concerns on manufacture of cocaine from
raw materials growing in the South America. They supervise export of the made
cocaine on the markets of the USA, Canada and Europe.
Others transnational organisations prefer to carry out
activity only at separate stages of a drug trafficking. So, for example, the
Nigerian criminal organisations are engaged basically in transportation and
distribution of different kinds of drugs. Nigeria continues to remain the basic
link in drug-dealing structure on the African continent, and also the main
reloading point through which drug traffic between the countries East and the
Western world is carried out. The Mexican cartels, without being engaged in
manufacture of drugs, carry out only their transportation and distribution. The
Turkish organisations are known for processing of heroin and its delivery in
countries of Western Europe.
Thus, drugs business is multidimensional, its characteristic
should be carried out on several parametres: to kinds of drugs, stages of their
manufacture and distribution, manufacture and sale territories, the basic
routes and ways of delivery, change of tendencies of these parametres for the
last years.
The characteristic of the markets
of principal views of drugs
According to the experts, today in the world it is made
from 1 to 1,5 thousand t chlorohydrin cocaine. The basic consumers of a drug -
the USA, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong. In the United States which is the heavy user
of cocaine in the world, according to the Interpol, is late more than 70 % of
illegal deliveries of a drug. The basic directions of cocaine contraband - the
American-Mexican border and Florida. A parity "volume - the price"
does cocaine by one of the most favourable in drugs business. It became one of
the reasons of the greatest level of integration and rigid structurization of a
cocaine drug mafia (cartels) in comparison with suppliers of other kinds of
drugs[11].
In 2009 the volume of withdrawals of cocaine has made
nearby 495 t that on 33 % more than in 2008. The cocaine most part is still
withdrawn on the American continent, mainly in the countries adjoining on the
states - manufacturers of cocaine: Chile, Ecuador, the countries of Central
America, Venezuela and Paraguay. In 2009 55 % of all cases of withdrawal of
cocaine it was necessary to the South America (including Central America and
Caribbean basin), 28 % - to the North America and 17 % - to Europe. Steady
growth of volume of withdrawals of cocaine in Europe that reflects the basic
changes in structure of a turn of cocaine became the most amazing tendency of
last years[12].
Cocaine transportation is usually carried out by
traditional means: with use of the drugs couriers transporting cargo on commercial
airlines. The Nigerian groupings participating in a transfer of cocaine in the
countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, since 1991, began to involve in the
activity of citizens of other states, such as the USA. Similar practice of use
as drugs couriers not citizens of Nigeria, and also attraction of persons from
the countries consuming drugs, proceeds already more than 10 years.
Larger parties hide in container cargoes which send to
Europe and the USA sea transport. Usually the commercial vessels transporting
lawful cargoes are for this purpose used, which sheer in the high sea in a
direction of the countries of Caribbean basin to take away cargo of cocaine
which then is delivered in the largest seaports or is forwarded through sea
coastal lines.
In total for 2009 it has been made opiat on 747 million
dollars, and 80 % - in Afghanistan (about 600 million dollars). At global level
cultivation опийного a poppy has increased on 16 %, basically at the expense of
increase in crops in Afghanistan. In South East Asia since 1998 the tendency to
decrease культивирования proceeds.
In 2009 more than 67 % of universal crops were in
Afghanistan. The area of the cultivated fields here has increased from 80
thousand in hectare in 2008 to 131 thousand in hectare in 2009. Now illegal
crops are in all 34 provinces of the country. Withdrawal опиатов (heroin,
морфина and the opium, expressed in a heroin equivalent) at global level has
increased in 2008 by 33 % in comparison with level of 2007. This increase
became a consequence of doubling of volumes confiscated морфина that has
reflected renewal of large-scale cultivation and processing опийного a poppy in
Afghanistan in 2007. Heroin withdrawal has increased by 10 % (53,3), opium - on
38 % (134) and morphinin 77 % (43,7) from total amount confiscated opiat[13].
The volume of withdrawals in the Western Europe has
decreased on 13 % and has made 19,4t. It has been most of all confiscated in
Great Britain and Italy - the largest European markets опиатов. In spite of the
fact that the price for heroin here continues to fall (69 euros for gramme in
2006, 63 euros in 2007 and 60 euros in 2008), the markets of the Western and
Central Europe remain the most profitable places of sale of this drug.
As to abusing heroin, position in countries of Western
Europe either remains stable, or (consumption) decrease was marked. The largest
market of heroin in Europe is, most likely, Russia: total number of the persons
who are on drugs, makes, by estimations, from 3 to 4 million, 1/3 from which -
the persons abusing heroin.
Abusing opium continues to increase in China. In
2008-2009 the number of the registered addicts increased and has exceeded 1
million persons that make 15-fold increase during 2005-2007. The message on the
most considerable decrease in level of abusing опиатами has during the last
years arrived in 2004 from Oceania. This tendency remained throughout 2005 and
2006.
Marihuana, hashish are made of cannabis, hashish oil.
Unlike cooks and opium poppy, the hemp is cultivated practically worldwide that
is caused by its wide prevalence and unpretentiousness. Cannabis, being enough
soft drug, always was popular at consumers.
The basic manufacturers of marihuana are: in Africa - Nigeria,
Malawi, Lesotho and Swaziland; in America — Mexico, Canada, Jamaica and
Colombia; in the Central Asia - Kazakhstan and Kirghizia; in the Near East -
Egypt and Lebanon; in Southern Asia - India; in South East Asia - Cambodia,
Thailand and Philippines[14].
The North America, most likely, - the largest
manufacturer of marihuana in the world, however this market is isolated: the
most part of the made is consumed on a place. According to administrative
bodies of the USA, 2/3 local demands for marihuana are satisfied at the expense
of manufacture in the country, 56 % of imported marihuana arrive from Mexico,
20 % - from Canada.
Management researches on struggle against drugs and
criminality preventive maintenance have shown that about 1/3 universal
manufactures of marihuana it is necessary to the North America that makes 14
thousand т. On the second place on volume of made marihuana Africa of-12
thousand т (28 % of total amount). Less large, but important manufacturers -
Southern Asia (9 %) and the Central Asia (5 %).
Morocco - the largest manufacturer of hashish supplying
the West European market. Researches of 2004 have shown that in comparison with
level of 2006 decrease культивирования cannabis on 10 % is observed, under
cannabis crops has been occupied 120,5 thousand in hectare, whereas in 2003-134
thousand in hectare. From the collected crop in 2007 it has been made nearby
2760 т hashish. Despite the given small decrease, the tendency to growth as in
manufacture, and the withdrawal volume, begun still in the early nineties the
last century, proceeds.
The drugs having the widest turn all over the world,
still there are two products of cannabis: marihuana and pitch of cannabis
(hashish). The cannabis turn mentions almost all countries of the world. In the
majority of the countries the volume of withdrawals of cannabis surpasses
volume of withdrawals of other kinds of drugs. The volume of the withdrawn
products of cannabis in 2007 on 24 % more than in 2006 also is the greatest
since 1984. It exceeds volume of withdrawals of 90th years more than twice, and
also level of 1999 - on 46 %. The universal volume of withdrawals of hashish
has made in 2009 1361 т that on 25 % there is more than 2008. The volume of
withdrawals basically has increased in the north of Africa (63 %), in the Near
East (21 %) and in Europe (26 %)[15].
As already it was told above, cannabis remains to one of
the most widespread drugs in the world: only in 2003 it consumed more than 161
million persons that make 4 % from an aggregate number of aged people of 15-64
years in the world. It is necessary to notice that from cannabis products
marihuana uses the greatest popularity. Cannabis uses the greatest demand in
Oceania, the North America and Africa. Cannabis consumption continues to grow
in the world: 46 % from an order of 100 interrogated countries have declared
growth of consumption and only 16 % - about its decrease. In particular it has
mentioned the countries of Latin America, Caribbean basin and Central America,
Western and the Eastern Europe and some countries of Asia.
Some groups of the preparations having a various spectrum
of action concern synthetic drugs - from stimulators to барбитуратов, being, as
a matter of fact, somnolent preparations. A variety of drugs of chemical
substances used for manufacture, interchangeability of initial components
provide availability and rather low production costs синтетиков. As initial components
their uncontrollable analogues that reduce a risk level can be used.
Consumption of synthetic drugs - such as "ecstasy" and amphetamine -
steadily grows all over the world, partly because people do not realise degree
of their danger.
By estimations, in 2008 the universal volume of output
methamphetamine and amphetamine has made nearby 422 t, and a volume of output
" ecstasy " - 90 t (basically MDMA). Thus, an annual volume of output
of stimulators amphetamine a number (САР) above corresponding indicators on
heroin, but more low - on cocaine. The basic manufacturers methamphetamine are
East and South East Asia (including Myanma, China and Philippines) and the
North America (the USA and Mexico). The basic manufacturers amphetamine and
" ecstasy " are in Europe (78 %). The Netherlands (the largest
manufacturer), Belgium, Poland concern their number, the states of Baltic and
Germany[16].
In manufacture САР which universal volume has grown for
last decade, the basic place occupies methamphetamine, and then follow
"ecstasy" and amphetamine. In 2008 11253 underground laboratories
have been liquidated. More than 80 % from them made methamphetamine. In the
early nineties this share did not exceed 20 %. The tendency to decrease in
2007-2008 was replaced by growth of volume of withdrawals amphetamine with 13
%. Large withdrawals have been made in Thailand (20 %), China (18 %), the USA
(14 %), Philippines (10 %), Great Britain, the Netherlands and Australia (on 6
%).
In Asia the consumption problem amphetamine costs on the
second place after consumption опиатов: all 2/3 of consumers’ amphetamine and
methamphetamine live here. In some countries preparations amphetamine groups
became more popular some heroin. In 2008 amphetamine and methamphetamine used
about 26 million persons that makes 0,6 % from world number of persons at the
age from 15 till 64 years. Whereas "ecstasy" – 7,9 million persons.
Consumption "ecstasy" now basically is
concentrated in Europe and the North America. The western and the Central
Europe is the consumer of 1/3 world volumes "ecstasy". Hardly more
low a consumption level in the North American countries - 30 %. All last decade
universal consumption "ecstasy" steadily grew and, most likely, will
continue the growth the next years though and not so it is prompt as, for
example, in the late nineties. Invariable popularity and, as consequence, use
distribution "ecstasy" in many developing countries remain. The turn
of this branch of the drugs industry is estimated in 65 billion dollars a year[17].
Capacities of the laboratories intended for manufacture
of heroin, allow making in parallel amphetamine. In the Western Europe, especially
in the Netherlands and Great Britain, small laboratories of the big capacity
are extended. Manufacture of stimulators in the states of Baltic, Bulgaria, the
Czech Republic, Mexico, Poland and the USA has extended.
As a whole synthetic drugs occupy a leading position
among other groups of narcotic and strong substances. They do not demand long
cultivation and the possible losses connected with it (for example, as a result
of a drought, destruction of plantations, etc.); the minimum volume of substance
(the dose can make a milligramme share) promotes more safe transportation, and
the wide range of consumers provides high incomes. Besides, scientific and
technical progress allows to synthesise drugs of new generation, cheaper and
stronger.
Despite positive tendencies of decrease in manufacture of
drugs in some countries, noted in the report of the United Nations on position
with drugs in the world for 2004, drugs business continues to remain a highly
remunerative kind of transnational, criminal activity. Manufacture of drugs of
new generation allows to reduce the prices and to involve in an illegal drugs
turn the increasing quantity of people. The structure of the transnational
organisations which are engaged in drugs business, helps to duck out easily, endowing
only local links of retail trade and couriers. The transnationality of
character of activity does not allow jurisdictions of the separate countries to
struggle effectively with drugs business. Thus drugs business actively
stimulates other kinds of transnational criminal activity.
Interrelation of drugs business
with other global problems of mankind
The problem of illegal manufacture of drugs very closely
intertwines with other global problems of mankind. This distribution of AIDS,
financing of activity of terrorists, organised crime development as a whole.
One more problem closely connected with a drug
trafficking and having global character – polarisation of the states, the
increasing deepening of an industrial inequality. In a context of a problem a
camp of "the third world» attempt to consider an illegal drugs turn in the
Report of the United Nations on position with drugs in the world for 2000 is
made. According to experts of the United Nations, that geographically
manufactures of drugs more and more concentrates in territory of such states –
not simply coincidence. To approach to it is necessary not from that position
that the states of "the third world» intentionally are engaged in drugs
manufacture – are not present, illegal manufacture of drugs – only a symptom of
deep problems of these countries, and a drugs problem – one of the most
stubborn[18].
It concerns those states, whose institutes are so weak
that cannot organise effective internal regulation and external safety, to the
states incapable or doing not wish to provide protection to all levels of
population. Besides, now the globe is shaken with 250 political conflicts of
various intensity, nearby 30 from them have interstate character. Weakness of
the states gives favorable possibilities for the organised criminal groups. The
criminality, corruption of the state institutes, and, as consequence, laws
grows cease to play a role. After only the organised crime starts to feel the
force and to be convinced of it, about the lawful and effectively functioning
state cannot be and speeches. The similar criminalised state formations are
least interested in observance of human rights. If to the state there was
something similar, restoration of normal conditions – the long, difficult and
expensive process directed not only on construction of the state institutes,
but also on elimination of contradictions among the country population, mutual
distrust eradication.
All aforesaid causes involving of the population of the
states of "the third world» in process of illegal manufacture of drugs.
From this point of view, cultivation an opium poppy for the peasant in
Afghanistan – search of ways of a survival in severe world around in the
conditions of the long internal state conflict, stable conditions and daily
threat for a life. In other cases manufacturers of drugs pay original "tax"
from the profit, going on needs of insurgent groups, such as Revolutionary
armed forces of Colombia. In both cases manufacture of drugs is the tool for
achievement of wider purposes. The cook or opium poppy plays here only a role
of the goods which can be sold well.
Undoubtedly, the decision of a problem of illegal
manufacture of drugs should be accompanied by a number of other measures
directed to the aid of the states of "the third world» in overcoming of
difficult internal conditions. The international community measures to poverty
prevention, to population safety, and if circumstances develop favorably, to
construction in these countries of normally functioning state institutes should
be taken.
And in a context of a problem of the states of "the
third world» it is necessary to consider threat which especially sharply faces
recently to mankind – interaction between drugs businessmen and terrorists.
Both the terrorism and a drug trafficking threaten a life of millions people,
stability of the state institutes, national safety.
So, the co-ordinator of US State department on struggle
against terrorism Michael Shihan has declared at subcommittee session on
criminality of Legal committee of the House of Representatives: «Drug dealers
and manufacturers of drugs, as well as the international criminals... Search
for such corners on globe where they could operate with impunity without the
control from outside the authorities. It is no wonder that often takes place a
bow between those who is engaged in terrorism, and those who participates in
other international forbidden kinds of activity»[19].
In connection with the tendency of steady reduction of
financial "injections" from outside the traditional states-sponsors
of terrorism terrorists even more often resort to other sources of financing,
such as manufacture and sale of drugs. And last decade was marked by the
further consolidation and development of mutually advantageous cooperation
between terrorist groups and suppliers of drugs, and also more and more wide
participation of terrorist groups in transportations of drugs with a view of
financing of the operations.
Both terrorists and drugs businessmen bring
"mite" in these mutual relations. The terrorists possessing
experience of semi military operations, supply drugs businessmen with the
weapon; suppliers of drugs are used as "the milk cows", providing to
terrorists access to the financial sources essentially surpassing their usual
channels of reception of money. Drugs businessmen also possess experience of
illegal sending and money-laundering. Thus, drugs business and terrorism in
escalating degree operate in common.
Almost all largest groups of insurgents-terrorists rely
on delivery of drugs carried out in this or that form as on a method of
reception of necessary means. In addition to it, drug traffic is connected with
illegal delivery of the weapon and other forms of contraband. The list of the
organisations such, undoubtedly, is headed by Revolutionary armed forces of
Colombia (РВСК) and the National liberation army (НОА), become, apparently, the
sample for imitation, and other terrorist groups including groups of Islamite
having religious motivation, follow today their example. So, the talib mode in
Afghanistan allowed to operate in the territory Ben Laden and to other
terrorists, encouraged drug traffic and got from it profit. Some Islamic extremists
consider drugs business as the weapon against the West and one of sources of
incomes for financing of the activity.
Other groups, wishing to use "drugs-dollars",
"Sendero Luminoso" («the Light way») in Peru, the Kurdish workers'
party (РКК) to Turkey, "Hezbollah" in Lebanon, «Tigers of clearing of
Tamila» in republic Sri Lanka, the Irish republican army (ИРА) in Great
Britain, Incorporated army of the state Va in Burma, various extremist both
terrorist groups and terrorists-singles in the USA are.
Drug traffic provides receipt from the USA and Europe
huge riches in some regions of Latin America, Asia and Middle East. In effect,
drugs give the chance to subsidise activity of terrorist groups worldwide.
Conclusion
The problem of consumption of drugs gets global and more
and more menacing character. Drugs business to some extent can be compared to
the international terrorism, and unique distinction between them consists only
that terrorists destroy people in arms, and drugs businessmen kill and will
cripple human lives, using narcotics.
Growth of manufacture and spread of drug addiction in the
world speaks following reasons:
•In the conditions of political and economic integration,
development of international trade, increase of a transparency of internal
borders by more free there is a movement of the goods, financial streams, the
capital, population shift. These factors are actively used by criminal
structures for working out of new routes and perfection of methods of a transfer
of drugs;
•Development of a science and occurrence of a new
information technology expand possibilities of criminal groupings for
application of modern techniques, including computers and шифраторы, mobile
phones and other communication facility that substantially raises security of
criminal structures and reduces percent of disclosing of the crimes connected
with manufacture, a transfer and spread of drug addiction;
•Increasing distinction between "the rich
north" and "the poor south" is actively maintained by drugs
business for expansion of manufacture of drugs on the African continent, in
region Central and the South America, in the countries of South East Asia.
The wide circulation has received the use of drugs among
youth. As a whole such tendency is shown: middle age of the persons, for the
first time tried drugs, decreases, and total number of new consumers of
narcotics increases.
The youth basically consumes hashish, however even more
often in a combination to other excitants. The increasing popularity is got
so-called by "club drugs" ("club drugs") type ketamine, and
also psychotropic substances of type MDMA ("ecstasy"). Advantage of
these narcotics consists that they are cheaper in comparison with the same
heroin or cocaine and they can be used in various variations.
Efforts of a drug mafia had been created the steady drugs
traffic penetrating almost all territory of the country. For advancement of
drugs to consumers’ underground retail networks which actively used not only
street, but also schools, clubs, discos have been organised, forming the
large-scale market of consumption of narcotics.
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